Analysis of the Aso-Bridge landslide during the 2016 Kumamoto earthquakes in Japan

In 2016, earthquakes occurred beneath Kumamoto City, Kumamoto Prefecture in the Kyushu Region of Japan and generated numerous landslides around the city, and among those triggered in this disastrous event, the Aso-Bridge landslide was the largest. For the purpose of examining the behavior of this large-scale landslide during the main shock of the Kumamoto earthquakes, we conducted a study involving simplified sliding block concepts and finite element codes, and conclude that (a) the slope of the Aso-Bridge landslide (about 710 m high and with a dip angle of 33 °) is marginally stable in the absence of earthquakes; (b) the failure surface obtained using finite element codes is in satisfactory agreement with that of the actual failure surface; ©) our results reveal that the initiation-time of the Aso-Bridge landslide lay between 18.45 and 21 s based on three indications: (I) the directional tendency of the first apparent displacement, (ii) evidential factor of safety (FS) values <1, and (iii) Newmark’s displacement; and (d) the combination of an internal friction angle of 35 ° and a cohesion value of 80 kPa led to a failure surface closest to that observed in the field. The study demonstrates that we were able to apply the simplified sliding concepts and finite element codes to analyze the Aso-Bridge landslide in reasonable agreement with the actual event.     

Analysis of landslide stability under seismic action and subsequent rainfall: a case study on the Ganjiazhai giant landslide along the Zhaotong-Qiaojia road during the 2014 Ludian earthquake,Yunnan, China

In a strong earthquake, not only a large number of coseismic landslides are triggered, but relaxation and cracks in the rocks and soils are induced, which make these rocks and soils vulnerable to instability during subsequent rainfall; thus, strong earthquakes always have long-term effects on landslides. The geo-hazards along the Zhaotong-Qiaojia road in the 2014 Ludian earthquake (Ms 6.5) of Yunnan Province, China, were investigated, and the Ganjiazhai giant landslide was chosen as a case study. First, using the limit equilibrium analysis and Newmark method, the critical seismic intensity of the landslide before the earthquake was evaluated. Secondly, the dynamic failure process of the landslide under the measured ground motion was simulated with the discontinuous deformation analysis method. Lastly, based on stress–seepage coupling analysis and precipitation data from Ludian meteorological station, the stability of the landslide during subsequent rainfall after the earthquake was predicted. The results show that the critical seismic intensity was within degrees VIII–IX, which is consistent with the results of the earthquake damage investigation. The dynamic failure process can be divided into four stages, and four scarps formed; the potential sliding zones during the subsequent rainfall were at the first scarp and the fourth scarp, and their critical rainfall amounts were 35–40 mm and 55–60 mm, respectively. In this paper, failure process simulation and stability prediction of the landslide before, during, and after the strong earthquake are presented, which provide analysis methods for the dynamic stability of landslides in the meizoseismal area.

     

地震作用下黄土滑坡加速度深度放大效应及震后变形模式研究

基于相似比理论,设计并完成了典型黄土滑坡物理模型试验,采用先进的离心机振动台技术,实现水平+垂直振动,研究黄土滑坡的地震动放大效应及变形模式,并配合有限差分数值模拟方法相互验证。结果表明：沿滑坡体浅表层加速度放大作用具有明显的趋表效应,水平向和垂向加速度放大效应呈非线性增加,且水平向大于垂向;在滑坡体的滑动面附近加速度放大作用呈现出岩性结构效应;随高程增加加速度响应逐渐增大,表现出高程效应,滑坡后壁放大作用明显。随入射地震波强度的增加,滑坡体内部关键部位加速度放大作用基本是先增大后减小的趋势。强震作用下黄土滑坡的破坏形式为：滑坡后壁形成拉裂隙并逐渐扩展,滑坡后壁发生崩塌,滑体略有下挫,形成拉槽,坡体中部鼓胀,坡脚有大量崩积物。研究结果为探讨地震作用下黄土滑坡的加速度放大效应和变形破坏情况,以期为天水地区黄土滑坡的地震稳定性评价和抗震设计提供参考。     

Numerical simulations of kinetic formation mechanism of Tangjiashan landslide

Tangjiashan landslide is a typical high-speed landslide hosted on consequent bedding rock.The landslide was induced by Wenchuan earthquake at a medium-steep hill slope.The occurrence of Tangjiashan landslide was basically controlled by the tectonic structure,topography,stratum lithology,slope structure,seismic waves,and strike of river.Among various factors,the seismic loading with great intensity and long duration was dominant.The landslide initiation exhibited the local amplification effect of seismic waves at the rear of the slope,the dislocation effect on the fault,and the shear failure differentiating effect on the regions between the soft and the hard layers.Based on field investigations and with the employment of the distinct element numerical simulation program UDEC(universal distinct element code),the whole kinetic sliding process of Tangjiashan landslide was represented and the formation mechanism of the consequent rock landslide under seismic loading was studied.The results are helpful for understanding seismic dynamic responses of consequent bedding rock slopes,where the slope stability could be governed by earthquakes.     

The role of active faults and sliding mechanism analysis of the 2017 Maoxian postseismic landslide in Sichuan,China

A giant, high-position rockslide occurred in Xinmo village of Maoxian County, Sichuan, China, on June 24, 2017. It was the largest rockslide recorded since the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, and caused great loss. We use field survey data and relevant information to describe the geometric and zoning of the Maoxian landslide, and we discuss its sliding mechanism and the role of active faults in its formation. The sliding mode of the Maoxian landslide involves a plane failure mechanism (sliding rupture), while the slipping process can be divided into two stages: a rock cracking and deterioration stage, and a high-speed sliding stage. The role of active faults (earthquake and fault movement) is probably the most important factor in the Maoxian landslide formation, while lithology played a catalytic role and rainfall acted as an inducing factor. The fault vertical combination model (“back thrust” dynamic model) proposed in this paper provides a reasonable explanation for the different distribution of the coseismic landslides caused by the 1933 M 7.5 Diexi earthquake. We consider that a steep slope near the active fault, especially where the active fault intersects, just like the “locked segment” of a fault, is the uppermost area to develop a large landslide.

     

基于环剪试验的汶川地震大型滑坡启动机理探索

2008年5·12汶川地震触发了大量滑坡灾害,牛眠沟滑坡是发生于震中的同震大型滑坡。经过现场调查,该滑坡启动后即与对岸山梁相撞并产生20 m爬高,估算速度达19.8 m/s,表现出高速启动特征。取滑带材料进行室内环剪试验,结果表明试样在不排水条件下具有很高的剪切液化能力,且动剪应力下容易液化,液化后材料视摩擦角仅为9.4°,从而得出地震滑带材料液化可能导致牛眠沟滑坡高速启动。通过能量方法,估算了不排水动剪试验材料的液化能量和地震过程通过滑带的地震能量。结果表明,滑带材料破坏所需峰值加速度为192 gal,液化所需能量为2.3×10~4J/m~2;汶川地震沿滑带方向提供最大地震加速度为799 gal,从而满足滑带液化的能量条件,并推测滑坡可能在地震初期突然触发。     

锚索抗滑桩地震响应的离心振动台模型试验研究

 锚索抗滑桩的抗震性能是建立和改进其抗震设计方法的基础。为深入理解其抗震性能,以汉源背后山堆积型滑坡锚索抗滑桩加固工程为参考原型,采用能实现原型仿真的50 g离心振动台模型试验,输入不同峰值的汶川地震清溪台基岩波作为基底激励,利用布设的不同类型传感器,记录锚索抗滑桩加固堆积型滑坡体的加速度、桩身弯矩、桩土间的动土压力和锚索轴力全过程的时程数据,揭示不同峰值的地震动作用时加固滑坡体加速度、抗滑桩弯矩、桩土间的动土压力和锚索轴力的定量化响应规律,为验证和发展锚索抗滑桩的抗震设计理论、数值模拟方法、厘清抗震加固机制及破坏模式提供翔实的资料。     

Three-dimensional distinct element modelling and dynamic runout analysis of a landslide in gneissic rock, British Columbia, Canada

The McAuley Creek Landslide is a 6?million m³ gneissic rock slope failure that occurred in British Columbia (Canada) in late May–early June 2002. The geological strength index was used to characterize the quality of the overall rock mass and its reduced (damaged) quality near tectonic structures and alteration zones. Potential slope failure mechanisms were investigated using four analysis techniques including: kinematic analysis, surface wedge limit equilibrium (combination) analysis, block theory and three-dimensional distinct element models. Results from all four analyses suggested that the dominant slope failure mechanism was wedge sliding along the intersection of the gneissic foliation and a steeply dipping discontinuity set striking perpendicular to the slope. Of the 6?million m³ of material involved in the landslide, an estimated 5 million?m³ was deposited immediately below the source area against the opposite valley wall, with the remaining 1 million m³ travelling an additional 1.6?km downstream. The runout behaviour was investigated using a three-dimensional dynamic analysis code.     

地震作用下饱和回填砂土重力式挡土结构滑动与转动位移分析

 预测地震作用下重力式挡土结构的位移是基于位移抗震设计方法的关键。基于Newmark滑动理论、超孔隙水压力应力模型和累积损伤原理,建立饱和回填砂土中超孔压比时程计算模型,以及墙体滑动和转动临界加速度时程计算模型。基于所建立的模型,提出用于计算饱和回填砂土重力式挡土结构滑动和转动位移的计算方法。采用该方法,分析土体参数和地震动参数对墙体滑动及转动位移的影响,并对墙体滑动与转动的耦合作用进行研究。结果表明,填土不发生液化的情况下,滑动位移对土体相对密度和墙体与地基土间的摩擦角十分敏感;转动位移对输入地震的震级、水平加速度和竖向加速度、填土的内摩擦角、墙背摩擦角和相对密度均较为敏感。超孔隙水压力对墙体滑动和转动位移的影响不可忽视。在地震作用下墙体与墙后填土破坏土楔体共同运动的假设条件下,墙体滑动与墙体转动相互抑制。     

Semi-quantitative method to identify the vulnerable areas in terms of building aggregation for probable landslide runout at the regional scale: a case study from Soacha Province,Colombia

Landslide susceptibility and vulnerability maps are key components for urban planning and risk management. The main objective of this research was spatial vulnerability mapping in the probable landslide runout zone in Soacha Province, Colombia. This study included three major steps: identification of a landslide susceptible area, identification of its runout zone, and vulnerability assessment using an area damage index method. The landslide-prone area was identified through a susceptibility analysis using a logistic regression model. In total, 182 landslide locations were collected and randomly distributed as training data (70%) and validation data (30%). The final landslide susceptibility map was validated using the area under the curve method. The validation result showed success and prediction rates of 88.71% and 89.96%, respectively. The Flow-R model was applied to identify the runout zone, and a back-propagation analysis approach was applied to estimate two essential input data for the model, i.e., the travel angle and velocity. From seven locations, the back-propagation analysis showed an average travel angle of 14.6° and an average velocity of 11.4 m/s. A total of 3777 buildings were identified within the probable runout zone. A physical vulnerability assessment was done by finding the ratio between area of buildings and area of runout zone in each small unit boundary. The physical vulnerability was classified as low, moderate, extensive, and complete on the basis of building exposure. The final result revealed that most of the village areas are in null or moderate vulnerability zones. In contrast to the village areas, the city areas include zones of extensive and complete vulnerability. This study showed that about 52% of the area of the city of Cazuca is completely vulnerable, i.e., in areas where abandoned quarry sites are present. The map of vulnerable areas may assist planners in overall landslide risk management.

     

汶川地震中国道G213左侧某典型高山河谷场地地震滑坡响应分析

 以国道G213左侧一处包含河谷地形的高陡边坡为原型,采用新型离散元计算方法--基于连续模型的离散元方法(CDEM),对高烈度地震作用下高陡边坡上的堆积体滑坡由变形累计到破坏滑动的全过程进行模拟,并结合振动台试验结果,对该高陡边坡上堆积体的地震滑坡响应进行研究。研究结果表明,在地震力和重力作用下,堆积体顶部先出现应力集中,造成堆积体沿基岩–堆积体结构面后缘产生变形,进而造成该处出现拉伸、剪切破坏点,之后随着地震动的持续,基岩–堆积体结构面上的剪切破坏点逐渐向堆积体中前部的锁固段扩展,同时伴随着堆积体表面拉伸破坏点的增加,最终造成锁固段发生渐进性破坏,堆积体从剪出口滑出形成滑坡。滑塌发生的时间与地震动峰值加速度到达的时间同步或稍微有所滞后。在高陡边坡地形中,以输入地震波为基准,不论是坡面还是坡体内,不同位置的峰值加速度沿坡高均有所放大,表现为竖向峰值加速度的放大效应＞水平峰值加速度的放大效应,坡面峰值加速度的放大效应＞坡体内峰值加速度的放大效应。在河谷地形中,以输入波为基准,不论是河床还是河岸两侧的斜坡,不同位置的峰值加速度沿高程均具有不同程度的放大;河谷对加速度放大效应的影响具有一定范围,且在该范围内水平加速度的放大效应＞竖向加速度的放大效应,与坡面处加速度的放大效应刚好相反;加速度的放大效应具有一定的方向性,且该方向性与河岸两侧斜坡的坡度有关;加速度放大效应在河谷底部的分布具有不均匀性,距离河岸越近,加速度放大效应越强烈。     

Geological characteristics of landslides triggered by the 2016 Kumamoto earthquake in Mt. Aso volcano,Japan

On 16 April 2016, a M_w 7.0 earthquake occurred in Kumamoto city, Japan. The main shock induced two large landslides, namely the Aso Bridge landslide and the Aso Volcanological Laboratory landslide. Their topographical and geological conditions and motion features were investigated by using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and portable dynamic cone penetration tests (PPTs). The Aso Bridge landslide lies between elevations of 385 m and 725 m, with a total estimated volume of about 1,980,000 m³. The main body is composed of cohesive soil with lapilli and block. The Aso Volcanological Laboratory landslide lies on a slope between 483 m to 582 m, and the total volume is about 81,000 m³, with an average thickness of 4.5 m. The main body is composed of Kusasenrigahama volcanic pumice tephra beds. The material compositions and deposits of both landslides have low cohesion and easily induced shear failure for the two landslides. The sliding distance of the Aso Bridge landslide was long, the sliding direction almost unchanged from the scarp to the toe, and the sliding speed was rapid. The sliding distance of the Aso Volcanological Laboratory landslide, however, was short, the sliding direction changed from the N-direction at the scarp to the NW-direction at the toe, and the sliding speed was slow.

     

高速滑坡远程预测的块体运动模型

 基于对高速滑坡发生机理的认识及对其运动特征和堆积特征的分析, 认为滑体内部的速度和变形具有不均匀性, 且运动过程伴随着变形能的积累、释放和损耗。在此基础上, 假定滑体的运动形式是连续可变的, 建立了预测高速滑坡远程的块体运动模型。应用该模型可以模拟滑坡发生后滑体运动的全过程, 同时可预测滑坡的最大滑速和最大滑距。利用该模型对洒勒山滑坡等实例进行了数值模拟, 结果和实际基本相符。     

A method for quick assessment of earthquake-triggered landslide hazards: a case study of the Mw6.1 2014 Ludian,China earthquake

Rapid assessment of the distribution of earthquake-triggered landslides is an important component of effective disaster mitigation. The effort should be based on both seismic landslide susceptibility and the ground shaking intensity, which is usually measured by peak ground acceleration (PGA). In this paper, we address this issue by analyzing data from the Mw6.1 2014 Ludian, China earthquake. The Newmark method of rigid-block modeling was applied to calculate the critical acceleration of slopes in the study area, which serve as measurement of slope stability under seismic load. The assessment of earthquake-triggered landslide hazard was conducted by comparing these critical accelerations with the distribution of known PGA values. The study area was classified into zones of five levels of landslide hazard: high, moderate high, moderate, light, and very light. Comparison shows that the resulting landslide hazard zones agree with the actual distribution of earthquake-triggered landslides. Nearly 70% of landslides are located in areas of high and moderately high hazard, which occupy only 17% of the study region. This paper demonstrates that using PGA, combined with the analysis of seismic landslide susceptibility, allows a reliable assessment of earthquake-triggered landslides hazards. This easy-operation mapping method is expected to be helpful in emergency preparedness planning, as well as in seismic landslide hazard zoning.

     

基于离心振动台的堆积型滑坡加速度响应特征

 加速度响应规律是解释滑坡震害、合理确定地震影响系数的基础。为此,设计完成了50倍重力加速度条件下的堆积型滑坡离心振动台模型试验,用来研究堆积型滑坡的加速度响应特征及规律。模型滑坡放置于600 mm×400 mm×500 mm(L×W×H)的刚性模型箱内,采用汶川地震清溪台站反演的基岩波作为基底输入,调整其幅值,研究不同强度地震动作用下堆积型滑坡的加速度响应特征及规律。试验结果表明：坡面水平向和竖直向峰值加速度(PGA)放大系数随滑坡的高程增加而增大,趋于坡顶时,增速明显变大,具有明显的高程放大效应;地震动作用下坡面与坡体内部的加速度响应特征明显不同,具有坡面浅表放大效应;滑床岩体自下向上水平向加速度有放大趋势,但与滑坡浅表土体相比,放大倍数则明显减弱;坡顶附近存在显著的波型转换现象;随着输入地震波强度的增大,PGA放大系数总体上表现为递减趋势。所得到的成果初步揭示了堆积型滑坡的加速度响应特征,为解释滑坡震害、确定地震影响系数等提供较可靠的依据。     

基于有限体积法的滑坡–碎屑流三维运动过程模拟分析

滑坡–碎屑流因其超常的流动性、超高的滑速以及巨大的能量成为一种具有极端破坏力的地质灾害现象。为实现滑坡–碎屑流三维地形条件下运动全过程的数值模拟,在局部拉格朗日坐标系基础上,考虑滑坡–碎屑流运动过程中滑体下表面的侵蚀作用及摩擦阻力的变化,建立基于有限体积法的计算模型。应用模型对萨尔瓦多的El Picacho滑坡进行反演分析,模拟过程采用距离侵蚀速率参数及Voellmy阻力模型,模拟结果的运动路径及滑动距离与滑坡发生的实际情况吻合较好,表明结合模型方程的数值模拟方法对于滑坡–碎屑流运动过程研究的有效性。此外,计算未考虑滑体下表面侵蚀作用的滑坡运动过程,结果显示滑坡运动物质的总体积减少,滑动距离明显变短。因此,侵蚀作用是滑坡–碎屑流运动过程研究所必须考虑的重要因素之一。滑坡–碎屑流三维运动过程的数值模拟研究可以为该类灾害的危险性评估及风险预测等提供科学的参考依据。     

纵横波时差耦合作用的斜坡崩滑效应离散元分析——以北川唐家山滑坡为例

 运用离散元数值模拟技术,对北川唐家山斜坡体在具地域性和空间非均质性的地震纵横波时差耦合作用(同时考虑水平和竖向地震力作用)下产生崩滑破坏的动力全过程进行研究,确定该斜坡体在强震动力作用下产生崩滑破坏的形成机制及主控因素。研究表明：(1) 该斜坡体的初期崩滑破坏是受到地震纵波产生的水平与竖向拉裂耦合作用所致,并以竖向拉裂作用占优,而后期的抛射及运动过程则是受到地震纵横波的耦合作用所致;(2) 地震纵波产生的水平与竖向拉裂耦合作用是触发斜坡体产生初期崩滑破坏的主控因素,而斜坡所处地形(如高程差、沟谷延伸方向)则是促使破坏后的斜坡体形成后续碰撞解体及碎屑流等运动过程的控制诱发因素;(3) 该斜坡体动力响应特征值的放大效应表明,其放大系数值从大到小依次是：竖向加速度＞水平加速度＞竖向速度＞水平速度,该结果与斜坡体发生先期崩滑破坏的形成机制及主控因素相符合,即地震纵波产生的竖向加速度起到了优势破坏作用。以上结论对研究动力耦合条件下的斜坡崩滑效应具有较高的理论和现实价值。     

堆积体滑坡稳定性的实时定量评价法

 介绍一种以钻孔倾斜仪深部变形监测为基础的评价堆积体滑坡完整性程度(破坏程度)的完整性指标Si(破坏性指标Sf)的方法,该方法可以在施工过程中根据孔口累计变形中滑带和滑坡体累计变形的各自变化关系计算出Si和Sf指标值,实时定量评价滑坡施工过程中滑带自下而上渐进破坏过程中稳定性的变化。破坏采用相对变形峰值标准,根据这种破坏标准可以看到,滑坡以滑带破坏为标志,滑带破坏则以滑带上盘破坏为标志。滑坡完整时对应Si = 1,Sf = 0;滑坡完全破坏时Si = 0和Sf = 1,不同破坏程度对应于[0,1]之间的某一值。工程实例表明,该方法不仅行之有效,而且非常方便。     

推移式滑坡渐进破坏机制及稳定性分析

 在现行滑坡稳定分析的基础上,建立推移式滑坡渐进破坏稳定性分析法。在分析滑坡破坏机制的基础上,提出临界状态条块或单元,该临界状态条块或单元处于破坏和峰值应力之前两状态之间,并提出相应的决定方法。提出推移式滑坡2种破坏模式,模式I：整个滑体沿弱面发生推移破坏,模式II：后缘沿弱面发生推移破坏,而前缘局部沿滑体发生剪切破坏;在滑坡破坏控制的研究基础上,提出模式I滑坡破坏受弱面的基本力学特性所控制,对于模式II,滑坡后缘破坏受弱面的基本力学特性所控制,而前缘受滑体的抗剪力学特性所控制,2种破坏模式的临界状态逐步由后缘向前缘移动,也即是滑坡破坏不断地产生新的峰值应力状态和破坏后区状态。对推移式滑坡的变形规律进行研究,提出在滑坡模式I和II渐进破坏全过程中,滑坡破坏面上的每一点的时间与位移关系均会呈现不同的“S”型曲线特征,对于整个滑体而言,滑面上每一点的位移与高度关系曲线,在不同时刻呈现不同的抛物线型特征。分析滑面的位移与时间的关系曲线特征,提出滑面位移与时间的关系曲线呈现3种类型：类型a：I型非稳定时间曲线,类型b：I型稳定时间曲线,类型c：III型稳定时间曲线。研究现行滑坡稳定性系数的计算特点,提出滑坡稳定性计算的综合下滑力–抗滑力、主推力和基于位移变化的方法。研究了滑坡的运动特点,提出了主滑方向的定义,且主滑方向随力和位移的变化而变化。研究有限元滑坡稳定计算的特点,分析引起滑坡有限元法计算不收敛的原因,提出滑坡有限元计算的滑面边界法,其滑面既可以施加理想弹塑性模型边界,计算所得稳定系数可与传统的极限状态稳定计算结果相比较,又可以施加不同的应力–应变模型边界,从而获得真实的应力场和位移场,也可利用各种方法计算相对应的稳定系数;对于滑面确定可以采用各种优选计算和现场勘查方法。提出了各种对应关系图,这些图形有利于理解提出的系统理论。     

Experimental study on the motion behavior and mechanism of submarine landslides

Submarine landslide is a common marine geo-hazard that shows different motion behavior with subaerial landslide. In this study, a test apparatus is developed to reproduce the extremely long distance movement of submarine landslides at different sliding velocities. The frontal behavior of subaqueous landslide under the dynamic pressure and shear stress of ambient water is described and analyzed. The evolution of the sediment concentration during the submarine landslide propagation is investigated. With an increase of the sliding velocity, the state of soil-water mixture can be divided into three stages: 1) landslide stage, the mixture consists a water layer and a sand layer; 2) transforming stage, a turbidity current layer appears above the sand-water interface, and the sand mass decreases gradually; 3) turbidity current stage, all of the sand particles are eroded by water and the sand layer disappears. In addition, the critical velocities between each stage are defined and investigated.