Issues in training older adults to use computers

Given the aging of the workforce and the general population, it is important to determine how best to train older adults to use computers. Generally, research has shown that training takes significantly more time for older adults compared with younger learners, and that older adults commit more errors in post-training evaluations. This paper reviews research demonstrating age differences in learning to use a computer. We also explore the effects of attitudes, anxiety, and cognitive abilities on computer use, as well as research on training novices to use computers. Finally, we discuss designing the human-computer interface for the advantage of older users.     

Attitudinal and experiential predictors of technological expertise

This study sought to clarify which computer and Internet skills and experiences differentiate technological expertise and to identify predictors of this expertise. Two hundred and fifty-eight incoming university students were surveyed on Internet and computer experiences, skills, and attitudes. Six specific Internet and computer uses that differentiate technological expertise were identified based on frequency of use. Males and those who own computers had greater technological expertise. Factor analyses identified two skill factors (Internet skills, Computer/Math skills), three experience factors (Internet, Computer, Recreational Use of Internet), five attitude factors (Importance of Internet and computer knowledge, Computer aversive, Internet and computer comfort/competency, Internet and computer overuse, Technology aversive). These factors as well as gender, computer ownership, and weekly computer and Internet use were entered as independent variables in a general linear model (GLM) which was then used to determine which factors affected technological expertise. The overall GLM was significant (R² = .414, F = 5.85, p < .001). Internet and computer skills and computer abuse were the strongest predictors of technological expertise. Weekly Internet use, Internet and computer comfort/competency also were predictors, and gender was almost significant (p = .056) as a predictor. Neither computer ownership nor other Internet and computer attitudes were significant predictors.     

Obstacles to social networking website use among older adults

Social networking websites (SNSs) have become popular among younger adults, but internet-using older adults have not adopted this communication medium nearly as quickly ( and ). This study seeks to understand what factors encourage or discourage older adults from using SNS, like Facebook, to help understand what may be done to ensure both generations have communication media over which they enjoy and feel comfortable communicating. Using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM;  and ) as a framework, 124 internet-using older adults aged 60–90, completed attitudinal measures of perceived usefulness of SNS, perceived ease of use of websites, social pressures to use SNS, and trust in SNS, as well as behavioral measures of current internet use, SNS use, and intention to use SNS in the future. Regression analyses revealed significant predictors of SNS include perceived usefulness, trust in SNS, and frequency of internet use. Unexpectedly, factors of ease of use and social pressures were not significant predictors. Implications for the TAM and for individuals with an interest in getting older adults to use SNS are discussed.     

Internet use and depression among older adults

The findings regarding the impact of Internet use on well-being are mixed and studies are often criticized due to small samples and lack of consistency in measurement. Fewer studies have examined this issue among older adults. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between Internet use and depression among retired Americans age 50 years or older. Using data from the Health and Retirement Survey, the study estimates the relationship between Internet use and depression through combined use of regression and propensity score methodologies. All empirical methods indicate a positive contribution of Internet use to mental well-being of retired older adults (?50 years), reducing depression categorization by approximately 20–28%.     

Computer use by older adults: A multi-disciplinary review

As the populations of most of the world’s developed nations experience an increase in average age, a similar trend is being observed in the population of computer and Internet users. In many cases, older adults are the fastest growing computer and Internet user group in both personal and workplace contexts. However, the needs and concerns of older adults as computer users differ from those of younger users as a result of the natural changes associated with the aging process. Much research has been conducted in a variety of fields in order to understand how these changes experienced by older adults impact their use of computers and the Internet. This article reviews this existing research and provides a holistic view of the field. Since the study of computer use by older adults is a multi-disciplinary topic by nature, we provide a synthesis of the findings across these many disciplines, and attempt to highlight any gaps that exist. We use Social Cognitive Theory as a lens to view and organize the literature, as well as illustrate means through which computer use by this user group can be encouraged. Finally, suggestions for future research are proposed, and implications for research and practice are discussed.     

Assessing Web interaction with recollection: Age-related and task-related differences

The current study examined how young (n = 26; mean = 22.31 years) and older Internet users (n = 24; mean = 64.54 years) performed when they had to select and recollect information displayed in Web pages. Content-oriented and navigation-oriented information-finding tasks were used during the study phase. At test, the method made use of two recognition paradigms designed to assess recollection and the nature of representations in memory: namely, the remember/know procedure and a forced-choice recognition procedure which made it possible to compare the retrieval of detailed (verbatim-based) and semantic (gist-based) representations. The evidence from both procedures suggested that remembering was less contextualised in older participants. Furthermore, the idea that content-oriented searches impose greater processing demands than navigation-oriented searches in Web pages was confirmed for both age groups. Interestingly, the older Internet users experienced more difficulties in finding targets in navigation-oriented searches than in content-oriented searches.     

Understanding sources of user variability in computer-based data entry performance

The pervasive use of computers in work settings implies that an increased number of workers, with varying levels of skills and abilities, will be performing computerbased tasks. This study investigated the impact of age, cognitive abilities, and computer experience on the performance of a real world data entry task. One hundred and ten subjects, ranging in age from 20 - 75 years, performed the task for nine hours following task training. The results indicated that abilities such as visuo-spatial skills, motor skills and processing speed had a significant impact on performance as did age and prior computer experience. With respect to age, the older participants completed less work than the younger and middle-aged subjects. Age differences in psychomotor skills and processing speed appeared to be important factors underlying age effects. In fact, the data indicated that after controlling for differences in these abilities age was no longer a significant predictor of work output. Further, after controlling for differences in work output the older people made fewer errors than the younger people. Overall the data suggest that older people will be at a disadvantage in the performance of computer-based data entry work to the extent to which speed of responding is emphasized. However, if speed of responding is not a critical element of performance they will be able to achieve comparable levels of performance to that of younger people.     

Development of a Weighted Heuristic for Website Evaluation for Older Adults

Older adults are the fastest growing population of Internet users. As websites acquire a greater number of older visitors, it is vital that they are designed with this demographic in mind. Older users typically have different user characteristics than younger users; they may have changes in perceptual abilities, motor skills, cognitive abilities, mental models, and confidence in the use of technology. This research documents the development of a new weighted heuristic measure for evaluating the usability of websites for older adults and its validation with performance testing. Results from a repeated measures analysis of variance indicated that websites with different heuristic classifications were significantly different with respect to performance metrics and System Usability Scale ratings. Conclusions point to the need for web design that takes into account preferences and abilities of older web users.     

Impact of computer training courses on reduction of loneliness of older people in Finland and Slovenia

Previous research has shown loneliness as a threat for the quality of life of older people; therefore the goal of the intervention in a quasi-experimental study was to evaluate and discuss the self-reported level of loneliness of older people in Finland and Slovenia before and after a computer intervention. Intervention in a quasi-experimental study was conducted among 58 older participants at the baseline (M = 72.4 years) and 45 older participants at the follow-up research study (M = 72.9 years). Inferential statistics showed a significant difference in the reduction of loneliness between the countries, and a decreased level of loneliness of older people after completing the computer training course. Although older people experience many age-related problems which may reduce their interest in learning information and communication technology (ICT) skills, it is important that they are computer-proficient, because computer engagement can reduce the level of loneliness of older people and in this way has a positive effect on their quality of life.     

Understanding sources of user variability in computer-based data entry performance

The pervasive use of computers in work settings implies that an increased number of workers, with varying levels of skills and abilities, will be performing computerbased tasks. This study investigated the impact of age, cognitive abilities, and computer experience on the performance of a real world data entry task. One hundred and ten subjects, ranging in age from 20 - 75 years, performed the task for nine hours following task training. The results indicated that abilities such as visuo-spatial skills, motor skills and processing speed had a significant impact on performance as did age and prior computer experience. With respect to age, the older participants completed less work than the younger and middle-aged subjects. Age differences in psychomotor skills and processing speed appeared to be important factors underlying age effects. In fact, the data indicated that after controlling for differences in these abilities age was no longer a significant predictor of work output. Further, after controlling for differences in work output the older people made fewer errors than the younger people. Overall the data suggest that older people will be at a disadvantage in the performance of computer-based data entry work to the extent to which speed of responding is emphasized. However, if speed of responding is not a critical element of performance they will be able to achieve comparable levels of performance to that of younger people.     

Age-Related Differences in Eye Tracking and Usability Performance: Website Usability for Older Adults

Cognitive decline is inherent with age. Despite known cognitive limitations, older adults are generally not taken into account during website design. Understanding age-related differences in website navigation is instructive for website design, especially considering the growing number of older adults who use the Internet. This article presents usability and eye-tracking data from five independent website usability studies that included younger and older participants. Overall results revealed age-dependent differences in eye movement and performance during website navigation on some of the sites. In particular, older participants had lower accuracy in one study and took longer to complete tasks in two studies compared to younger participants, they looked at the central part of the screen more frequently than younger participants in two studies, and they looked at the peripheral left part of the screen less frequently and took longer to first look at the peripheral top part of the screen than younger participants in one study. These data highlight the potential for age-related differences in performance while navigating websites and provide motivation for further exploration. Implications for website design and for usability practitioners are discussed.     

Internet use intention and adoption among Chinese older adults: From the expanded technology acceptance model perspective

The purpose of this paper is to discuss how various factors intertwine to affect Chinese older adults’ decisions to adopt the Internet by applying the expanded technology acceptance model (TAM). Perceived usefulness (PU), perceived ease of use (PEU), subjective norm (SN), and facilitating conditions (FC) were four key predictors. Gender and age were included in the proposed model as factors to moderate the effect of two key TAM components (PU and PEU) on adoption behaviors. The results indicate that PU, PEU, and SN were significant predictors of Internet adoption among Chinese older adults, while PU, SN, and FC were significant predictors of Internet use intention. The effect of PEU on Internet use intention was also found to be stronger for older seniors than younger seniors. Implications for future research and practices are discussed.     

Motivation of computer based learning across adulthood

This research investigates learning motivation of young and old adults. In detail, we explore motives of young and old adults to participate in two ICT-course settings: e-learning and face-to-face courses. In a first study young (n = 53, M = 26.0 years) and old (n = 55, M = 69.8 years) participants of e-learning courses completed an online questionnaire on learning motivation and personality. In a second study young (n = 46, M = 26.7 years) and old (n = 57, M = 69.5 years) participants of face-to-face ICT courses completed the same learning motivation questionnaire and questions about personality, subjective age and life satisfaction. Exploratory factor analysis revealed four factors of learning motivation: belonging, instrumentality, personal growth, and competition. As expected, older adults expressed stronger motives of belonging and personal growth, and thus expressed a stronger interest in self-determined and intrinsic learning. Young adults, in contrast, strongly endorsed competitive-related motives of learning. Instrumentality was influenced by the interaction of age and subjective age; older participants showed higher instrumentality when the difference between chronological age and subjective age is big. Findings of this study shed new light on assumptions of socioemotional selectivity theory.     

An application of the technology acceptance model to the level of Internet usage by older adults

In this cross-sectional study, the principles of a technology acceptance model were used to identify variables related to the level of Internet usage by older adults. Community-dwelling older adults aged 60–88 years completed a postal questionnaire survey that elicited responses on the use of the Internet. Out of a sample of 592 older adults (236 males and 356 females), 50.7% used the Internet. A multiple linear regression analysis was carried out on the Internet users sample using the self-reported number of hours of Internet usage per week as the dependent variable. The results indicated that attitude toward using the Internet and good health status were statistically significant predictors of the level of Internet usage. A second multiple regression analysis using Internet activity as the dependent variable showed that attitude, usefulness, good health, and gender (males) were significant predictor variables.     

Successful aging through digital games: Socioemotional differences between older adult gamers and Non-gamers

The purpose of this investigation was to examine differences in psychological functioning (e.g., well-being, affect, depression, and social functioning) between older adults who play digital games compared to those older adults that do not play digital games. Analysis was conducted on a sample of 140 independently living older adults with an average age of 77.47 years (SD = 7.31). Participants were divided into three groups (Regular, Occasional Gamers, and Non-gamers) – 60% of the sample was either a Regular or Occasional Gamer. Differences among the groups were found for well-being, negative affect, social functioning, and depression with Regular and Occasional Gamers performing better, on average, than Non-gaming older adults. Findings suggest that playing may serve as a positive activity associated with successful aging.     

Understanding adolescents’ problematic Internet use from a social/cognitive and addiction research framework

As Internet usage has become more prevalent among youth, so too has problematic Internet use. Despite the critical role of emotion regulation in the development of adolescents’ behaviors and the role of parenting interactions on their children’s behaviors, little research has examined these links with reference to problematic and addictive Internet use for adolescents. The main goal of this study was to examine these links, based on a sample of 525 high school students (368 males; M = 15.33 years, SD = 0.47) from a predominantly middle and lower-middle socioeconomic community in Seoul, Korea. Results from structural equation modeling revealed that students’ difficulties in emotion regulation was a mediating variable between students’ perceptions of their parents’ parenting behaviors and the students’ Internet use. The findings substantiate the importance of conceptualizing addiction from a social/cognitive theoretical framework and the notion that adolescence is the onset period for many addictive behaviors and so more proactive attention needs to be given to reducing these early negative behaviors. Based on these results, interventions designed to enhance adolescents’ emotion regulatory abilities have the likelihood to mitigate problematic and even addictive Internet use among youth.     

Older adults' acquisition of word processing: The contribution of cognitive abilities and computer anxiety

This study examined relationships between computer attitude, computer experience, gender, cognitive abilities, and the acquisition of word processing by older adults. A total of 28 older adults (Mg. = 68.70 years) completed computer attitude questionnaires before and after a 6-week word-processing course and, additionally, completed spatial scanning, deductive, and inductive reasoning tests during the course. Gender differences were observed for attitudes towards computers, with females having a less positive attitude than males. Greater computer experience was associated with a more positive attitude, and with learning more word-processing knowledge during the course, replicating previous findings with young adults. No overall change in attitudes was found across the course, with the exception of computer liking; subjects tended to like computers less after the course, suggesting that the type of computer exposure may be an important factor in determining attitudes. Spatial scanning was found to be important in rapidly locating control keys for editing. Inductive and deductive reasoning were important predictors of word-processing knowledge, accounting for 60% of the variance. Identification of individual difference factors is a first step towards suggesting design changes in word-processing programs for older adults.     

Predicting older adults’ perceptions about a computer system designed for seniors

Although computer technology may be particularly useful for older adults (e.g., for communication and information access), they have been slower adopters than their younger counterparts. Perceptions about computers, such as perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, can pose barriers to acceptance and universal access (Davis in MIS Q 13(3):319–340, 1989). Therefore, understanding the precursors to these perceptions for older adult non-computer users may provide insight into the reasons for their non-adoption. The authors examined the relationship between perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of a computer interface designed for older users and demographic, technology experience, cognitive abilities, personality, and attitudinal variables in a sample of 300 non-computer-using adults between the ages 64 and 98, selected for being at high risk for social isolation. The strongest correlates of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use were technology experience, personality dimensions of agreeableness and openness to experience, and attitudes. The emotional stability personality dimension was significantly correlated with perceived ease of use though not perceived usefulness. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that attitudes (i.e., self-efficacy, comfort, and interest) remained predictive of perceptions of usefulness and ease of use when technology experience and personality variables were accounted for. Given that attitudes are more malleable than other variables, such as demographic and cognitive abilities, these findings highlight the potential to increase technology acceptance through positive experiences, appropriate training, and educational campaigns about the benefits of computers and other technologies.     

Cyberbullying among young adults in Malaysia: The roles of gender,age and Internet frequency

This study investigated the extent of young adults’ (N = 393; 17–30 years old) experience of cyberbullying, from the perspectives of cyberbullies and cyber-victims using an online questionnaire survey. The overall prevalence rate shows cyberbullying is still present after the schooling years. No significant gender differences were noted, however females outnumbered males as cyberbullies and cyber-victims. Overall no significant differences were noted for age, but younger participants were found to engage more in cyberbullying activities (i.e. victims and perpetrators) than the older participants. Significant differences were noted for Internet frequency with those spending 2–5 h online daily reported being more victimized and engage in cyberbullying than those who spend less than an hour daily. Internet frequency was also found to significantly predict cyber-victimization and cyberbullying, indicating that as the time spent on Internet increases, so does the chances to be bullied and to bully someone. Finally, a positive significant association was observed between cyber-victims and cyberbullies indicating that there is a tendency for cyber-victims to become cyberbullies, and vice versa. Overall it can be concluded that cyberbullying incidences are still taking place, even though they are not as rampant as observed among the younger users.     

Internet use and non-use: views of older users

This paper reports the results of two connected surveys of computer and Internet use among the older population in the UK. One hundred and twenty questionnaires and interviews were completed with participants aged over 55 in Derbyshire and 353 questionnaires and interviews with over 50s in Scotland. Rates of use, computer and Internet activities, and reasons for use and non-use were investigated. These were backed up by four semi-structured interviews with IT trainers, describing experiences and issues of training this age group. The results indicate a “grey” digital divide, with many older people missing out on the benefits that computers and the Internet can provide. They also indicate some of the reasons why older people do not use computers and the Internet more. These suggest some practical ways forward, highlighting the importance of changing older people’s misconceptions about computers, better informing them about what they are, what they can do and how they can be of real practical use.