Properties of steam treated binderless particleboard made from oil palm trunks

The objective of this study was to evaluate both physical and mechanical properties of particleboard panels manufactured from steamed material of oil palm trunks without using any adhesives. Experimental panels from fine particles and vascular strands of oil palm were manufactured. Modulus of rupture (MOR), internal bond strength (IB), thickness swelling (TS) and water absorption (WA) of the samples were tested based on Japanese Industrial Standards. Bonding quality of such binderless samples was also evaluated by using scanning electron microscope (SEM). Based on the findings on this work steaming of the raw material enhanced overall mechanical and physical characteristic of the samples. The highest MOR values of 8.12 MPa and 25.84 MPa were found for the samples made from fine particles and strands steamed at a temperature of 130 °C for 30 min, respectively. It appears that mechanical properties of the panels reduced when they exposed to beyond 30 min steaming time.     

Effect of particle geometry on the properties of binderless particleboard manufactured from oil palm trunk

Experimental binderless composite panels were manufactured using fine particles and strands of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) trunks. Modulus of rupture (MOR), internal bond strength (IB), dimensional stability, and surface roughness of the panels made with a target density of 0.80 g/cm³ were evaluated. Strand type samples had MOR and IB values of 24.95 and 0.95 MPa, respectively. Corresponding values for the fine particle type samples were 4.04 and 0.49 MPa. Panels made from strands met MOR requirement stated in Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS). Enhanced bonding between strands observed by micrographs taken using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) also supported the findings. However, the samples having fine particles had lower MOR values than minimum requirement listed in JIS. Strand type panels had 41.6% thickness swelling which is only 4.6% lower than that of the panels made from fine particles. It appears that dimensional stability of both types of panels exhibited insufficient results according to JIS. Surface roughness quality of the samples made from fine particles had average surface roughness values comparable to those of panels made in past studies. Based on initial results of this work, raw material from oil palm trunks can have some potential to be used to manufacture binderless panels without using any adhesives. This study revealed that mechanical and physical properties of such experimental panels were influenced by the particle geometry. It would be important to consider possible addition of chemical or wax in the particles to improve their dimensional stability in further studies.     

Influence of press temperature on the properties of binderless particleboard made from oil palm trunk

The objective of this investigation was to evaluate the properties of binderless particleboard manufactured from oil palm trunk as a function of press temperature. Particleboard samples were manufactured with a target density of 0.80 g/cm³ using press temperatures of 160 °C, 180 °C and 200 °C. The modulus of rupture, internal bond strength, water absorption and thickness swelling of the boards were determined based on Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS). Thermal gravimetric analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and field-emission scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray analysis were employed to characterize the properties of the raw materials and the manufactured panels. The moduli of rupture of the samples were observed to increase with increasing press temperature, but they did not meet the standard values. However, the internal bond strength of the samples attained satisfactory values according to the JIS standard for all three temperature levels. Water absorption and thickness swelling of the boards decreased with increasing pressing temperature. Based on the findings in this study, increasing the pressing temperature may be considered a potential way of improving the properties of binderless particleboard.     

Characterization of raw materials and manufactured binderless particleboard from oil palm biomass

The objective of this study was to examine the extractive, holocellulose, alpha cellulose, lignin, starch, and sugar contents of oil palm biomass and to evaluate its suitability in binderless particleboard production. In this study, bark, leaves, fronds, mid-parts and core-parts of the trunks were used to produce experimental binderless particleboard panels. Binderless particleboard panels were made with a target density of 0.80 g/cm³ at a temperature of 180 °C and a pressure of 12 MPa in a computer controlled hot press. The modulus of rupture, the internal bond strength, the thickness swelling and the water absorption of the panels were evaluated. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and field emission scanning electron microscopy were used to characterize the properties of the raw materials and the manufactured panels. The chemical composition of the oil palm biomass consisted of high holocellulose, lignin, starch and sugar contents that have been found to aid in the production of binderless particleboard. The core-part of the trunk contained the highest amount of starch and total sugar. Samples made from the core-parts and fronds had sufficient modulus of rupture and internal bond strength to meet the Japanese Industrial Standard. The internal bond strength of the mid-part panels also met the standard. However, binderless board prepared from bark and leaves showed poor modulus of rupture and internal bond strength. Samples from the core-parts had the lowest thickness swell and water absorption but did not meet the above standard. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy spectra did not show any substantial difference between the raw materials and the manufactured panels. Field emission scanning electron microscopy indicated that the compressed cells varied between raw material types and showed the presence of compressed cells with some starch granules that facilitated adhesion. Based on the findings of this study, oil palm has the potential to be used to manufacture binderless panel products, and further study is required to improve its dimensional stability.     

无胶竹碎料板的性能研究

以3种不同形态的竹碎料为原料,不添加合成树脂,在不同热压温度条件下制备无胶竹碎料板,研究其性能特性。结果表明,随着热压温度的升高,3种无胶竹碎料板的内结合强度逐步增强,其中片状竹碎料压制的板材最高;同时,丝状和颗粒状竹碎料压制的板材吸水厚度膨胀率性能明显改善,190℃之前片状竹碎料压制的板材吸水厚度膨胀率性能最好,190℃时丝状和颗粒状竹碎料压制的板材出现严重炭化现象使吸水厚度膨胀率优于片状竹碎料压制的板材;另外,丝状竹碎料压制的板材静曲强度和弹性模量最大。竹碎料板的弯曲破坏模式主要包括下表面拉断、芯层剪切破坏,而拉伸破坏模式主要指中间芯层脆性断裂。     

Effect of treated particles on the properties of particleboard made from oil palm trunk

The objective of this work was to evaluate the properties of particleboard made from oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) trunks treated with hot water and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Experimental panels were manufactured from oil palm particles soaked in hot water for 30 min and soaked in NaOH with 2% concentration for the same time span. Urea formaldehyde adhesive was used for both types of particles as binder. Bending, internal bonding strength, thickness swelling and water absorption of the panels were tested. Scanning electron microscopy and fourier transform infrared spectroscopy were employed to analyze the properties of raw materials and manufactured panels. Based on the findings in this study, samples made with raw material treated with hot water resulted in 863.93 MPa modulus of elasticity and 7.09 MPa modulus of rupture which were higher than those of control panels and made from NaOH treated particles. Internal bond strength of the specimens also followed the similar trend. Both treatments improved the dimensional characteristics of the specimens.     

Properties of laminated panels made from compressed oil palm trunk

This study evaluated physical and mechanical properties of laminated panels made from compressed oil palm trunk (OPT). The OPT were steamed at 130 °C before being compressed and laminated using polyvinyl acetate adhesive at 250 g/m² and 500 g/m² spread rates. The modulus of rupture and compression strength values of laminated panels made from compressed OPT was greater than those of laminated panels made from uncompressed OPT. Surface roughness, water absorption, and thickness swelling of laminated panels made from compressed OPT significantly improved. The findings in this study indicated that compressing of OPT would be considered as an alternative to produce value-added material with enhanced properties.     

Properties of epoxidized palm oil plasticized polytlactic acid

In this study, epoxidized palm oil (EPO) was utilized as a plasticizer for polylactic acid (PLA) using chloroform as a solvent by solution casting process at six weight ratios of PLA/EPO, 95/05, 90/10, 80/20, 70/30, 60/40, and 50/50, respectively. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used to identify the functional groups of PLA, EPO, and PLA/EPO blends. Thermal stability, mechanical, and morphological properties of the blends were investigated by thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA), tensile properties measurements, and scanning electron microscope (SEM) technique, respectively. The FTIR spectra indicate that there are some molecular interactions by intramolecular hydrogen bond between PLA and EPO. All sets of PLA/EPO blends show high thermal stability and significant improvement of mechanical properties compare to pure PLA. The highest elongation at break (about 210%) was obtained when the ratio of PLA/EPO blend was 80/20. Morphological results of PLA/EPO blends show that ESO was good miscible with PLA.     

Batch removal of malachite green from aqueous solutions by adsorption on oil palm trunk fibre: equilibrium isotherms and kinetic studies

Oil palm trunk fibre (OPTF)--an agricultural solid waste--was used as low-cost adsorbent to remove malachite green (MG) from aqueous solutions. The operating variables studied were contact time, initial dye concentration, and solution pH. Equilibrium adsorption data were analyzed by three isotherms, namely the Freundlich isotherm, the Langmuir isotherm, and the multilayer adsorption isotherm. The best fit to the data was obtained with the multilayer adsorption. The monolayer adsorption capacity of OPTF was found to be 149.35 mg/g at 30 degrees C. Adsorption kinetic data were modeled using the Lagergren pseudo-first-order, Ho's pseudo-second-order and Elovich models. It was found that the Lagergren's model could be used for the prediction of the system's kinetics. The overall rate of dye uptake was found to be controlled by external mass transfer at the beginning of adsorption, then for initial MG concentrations of 25, 50, 100, 150, and 300 mg/L the rate-control changed to intraparticle diffusion at a later stage, but for initial MG concentrations 200 and 250 mg/L no evidence was found of intraparticle diffusion at any period of adsorption. It was found that with increasing the initial concentration of MG, the pore-diffusion coefficient increased while the film-diffusion coefficient decreased.     

Properties of particleboard made from rubberwood using modified starch as binder

The objective of the study was to evaluate physical and mechanical properties of experimental particleboard panels made from rubberwood (Hevea brasiliensis) using modified starch as binder. Panels were manufactured using 15% corn starch modified with glutardialdehyde and tested for their properties based on Japanese Standard. The modulus of rupture and the internal bond strength of the panels met the requirement of the specified standard. Based on the findings in this work modified corn starch can have a potential to be used as binder to produce particleboard panels with acceptable properties.     

Properties enhancement using oil palm shell nanoparticles of fibers reinforced polyester hybrid composites

Oil palm shell (OPS) nanoparticles were utilized as filler in fibers reinforced polyester hybrid composites. The OPS nanoparticles were successfully produced from the raw OPS using high-energy ball milling process. Fundamental properties including morphology, crystalline size, and particle size of the OPS nanoparticles were determined. Tri-layer natural fiber reinforcement (kenaf–coconut–kenaf fiber mat) polyester hybrid composites were prepared by hand lay-up techniques. The influences of the OPS nanoparticles loading in the natural fibers reinforced polyester hybrid composites were determined by analyzing physical, mechanical, morphological, and thermal properties of the composites. Results showed that the incorporation of the OPS nanoparticles into the hybrid composites enhanced the composite properties. Further, the natural fibers reinforced polyester hybrid composite had the highest physical, mechanical, morphological, and thermal characteristics at 3 wt.% OPS nanoparticles loading.     

Properties of binary and ternary blended cement mortars containing palm oil fuel ash and metakaolin

Abstract

This paper has investigated the properties of mortars made from binary and ternary blends of metakaolin (MK), palm oil fuel ash (POFA), and ordinary Portland cement (OPC). A total of 17 different mortar mixtures were produced. The OPC in the mixtures was partially replaced by MK, POFA, or a combination of MK and POFA at different replacement levels of (0–30%) by weight of the binder. At the fresh state, the flow (workability) of mortar mixtures was determined, while at the hardened state, the compressive strength and porosity at the ages of 7, 28, and 90 days were evaluated. The results showed that the flow of mortar is boosted with the combined use of MK and POFA compared to when MK is separately used. Besides, improvement in low early compressive strength development and reduction in high porosity from use of POFA occurred with the addition of up to 10% MK content. Therefore, the combination of POFA and MK could be used as a supplementary cementitious material to produce cement-based material of higher quality than OPC.     

Development and material properties of new hybrid plywood from oil palm biomass

Shortage of wood as a raw material has forced wood-based industries to find alternative local raw materials. Currently, oil palm biomass is undergoing research and development (R & D) and appears to be the most viable alternative. This work examines the conversion of oil palm trunk (OPT) and oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFB) into new plywood and analyses its properties. We prepared five-ply veneer hybrid plywood (alternating layers of oil palm trunk veneer and empty fruit bunch mat) with different spread levels (300 g/m² and 500 g/m²) of resins (phenol formaldehyde and urea formaldehyde). We then studied the mechanical and physical properties of the plywood. The results show that hybridisation of EFB with OPT improves some properties of plywood, such as bending strength, screw withdrawal and shear strength. The thermal properties of the plywood panels were studied by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The panels glued with phenol formaldehyde with a spread level of 500 g/m² showed better thermal stability than the other panels. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to study the fibre matrix bonding and surface morphology of the plywood at different glue spread levels of the resins. The fibre–matrix bonding showed good improvement for the hybrid panel glued with 500 g/m² phenol formaldehyde.     

Exploring isolated lignin material from oil palm biomass waste in green composites

Lignin obtained from oil palm biomass empty fruit bunches (EFB) fibers, has been used as curing agent in green epoxy composites. Epoxy–lignin composites, with varying lignin content (15%, 20%, 25% and 30%), reinforced with EFB fiber were prepared. The effect of EFB-based lignin on the mechanical, thermal and morphology properties of the composites were investigated and compared with the composites cured with isophorone diamine curing agent. The improved thermal stability and the observed microstructure of the fractured surface of the composites were attributed to good fiber–matrix interaction, induced by the curing agent. The epoxy composites cured with 25% lignin content proved to be a better matrix and gave optimum value compared with other formulations which was confirmed by its mechanical, thermal and morphological properties.     

Shear strength of palm oil clinker concrete beams

This paper presents experimental results on the shear behavior of reinforced concrete beams made of palm oil clinker concrete (POCC). Palm oil clinker (POC) is a by-product of palm oil industry and its utilization in concrete production not only solves the problem of disposing this solid waste but also helps to conserve natural resources. Seven reinforced POCC beams without shear reinforcement were fabricated and their shear behavior was tested. POCC has been classified as a lightweight structural concrete with air dry density less than 1850 kg/m³ and a 28-day compressive strength more than 20 MPa. The experimental variables which have been considered in this study were the POCC compressive strength, shear span–depth ratio (a/d) and the ratio of tensile reinforcement (ρ). The results show that the failure mode of the reinforced POCC beam is similar to that of conventional reinforced concrete beam. In addition, the shear equation of the Canadian Standard Association (CSA) can be used in designing reinforced POCC beam with ρ ⩾ 1. However, a 0.5 safety factor should be included in the formula for ρ < 1.     

Flexural strength of palm oil clinker concrete beams

This paper presents an experimental program on the flexural behaviour of reinforced concrete beams produced from palm oil clinker (POC) aggregates. POC is obtained from by-product of palm oil milling. Utilisation of POC in concrete production not only solves the problem of disposal of this solid waste but also helps to conserve natural resources. An experimental work was conducted involving eight under-reinforced beams with varying reinforcement ratios (0.34–2.21%) which were fabricated and tested. The data presented include the deflection characteristics, cracking behaviour and ductility indices. It was found that although palm oil clinker concrete (POCC) has a low modulus of elasticity, the test results revealed that the deflection of singly reinforced POCC beams, with reinforcement ratio less than 0.524, under the design service load is acceptable as the span-deflection ratios range between 250 and 257 and these values are within the allowable limit provided by BS 8110. In addition, the results reported in this paper indicate that the BS8110 based design equations can be used for the prediction of the flexural capacity of POCC beams with reinforcement ratio up to 2.23%.     

Removal of chromium (VI) from aqueous solution using treated oil palm fibre

This study proposed an oil palm by-product as a low-cost adsorbent for the removal of hexavalent chromium [Cr (VI)] from aqueous solution. Adsorption of Cr (VI) by sulphuric acid and heat-treated oil palm fibre was conducted using batch tests. The influence of pH, contact time, initial chromium concentration and adsorbent dosage on the removal of Cr (VI) from the solutions was investigated. The optimum initial pH for maximum uptake of Cr (VI) from aqueous solution was found to be 1.5. The removal efficiency was found to correlate with the initial Cr (VI) concentration, adsorbent dosage as well as the contact time between Cr (VI) and the adsorbent. The adsorption kinetics tested with pseudo first order and pseudo second order models yielded high R(2) values from 0.9254 to 0.9870 and from 0.9936 to 0.9998, respectively. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed significant difference between the R(2) values of the two models at 99% confidence level. The Freundlich isotherm (R(2)=0.8778) described Cr (VI) adsorption slightly better than the Langmuir isotherm (R(2)=0.8715). Difficulty in desorption of Cr (VI) suggests the suitability of treated oil palm fibre as a single-use adsorbent for Cr (VI) removal from aqueous solution.