Methods to measure interlaminar tensile modulus of composites

This work expands a recently developed short-beam method coupled with the Digital Image Correlation full-field surface deformation measurement technique to enable assessment of the interlaminar tensile stress–strain constitutive properties of polymer–matrix composite materials. This work also expands the American Society for Testing and Materials Standard D 6415 curved-beam method as another means for measurement of the interlaminar tensile stress–strain constitutive behavior. The interlaminar tensile modulus values resulting from both methods are compared for Hexcel IM7/8552 carbon/epoxy tape composite material system.     

数字图像相关方法辅助的IM7/8552碳纤维/环氧树脂复合材料单向带层合板沿厚度方向非线性本构参数识别

提出了采用数字图像相关(DIC)方法和有限元模型修正(FEMU)技术相结合,通过短梁剪切(SBS)试验获得碳纤维增强环氧树脂(IM7/8552)正交各向异性复合材料单向带层合板沿厚度方向压缩本构关系参数的试验方法.该方法根据假设材料初始本构,采用3D有限元模型(FEM)计算获得主平面压头下方沿厚度方向的应力和应变分布,...     

A local constitutive model with anisotropy for ratcheting under 2D axial-symmetric isobaric deformation

A local constitutive model for anisotropic granular materials is introduced and applied to isobaric (homogeneous) axial-symmetric deformation. The simplified model (in the coordinate system of the bi-axial box) involves only scalar values for hydrostatic and shear stresses, for the volumetric and shear strains as well as for the new ingredient, the anisotropy modulus. The non-linear constitutive evolution equations that relate stress and anisotropy to strain are inspired by observations from discrete element method (DEM) simulations. For the sake of simplicity, parameters like the bulk and shear modulus are set to constants, while the shear stress ratio and the anisotropy evolve with different rates to their critical state limit values when shear deformations become large. When applied to isobaric deformation in the bi-axial geometry, the model shows ratcheting under cyclic loading. Fast and slow evolution of the anisotropy modulus with strain. Lead to dilatancy and contractancy, respectively. Furthermore, anisotropy acts such that it works “against” the strain/stress, e.g., a compressive strain builds up anisotropy that creates additional stress acting against further compression.     

Bulk and shear characterization of bituminous mixtures in the linear viscoelastic domain

Traffic loads and temperature variations produce three-dimensional stress–strain fields inside road pavements, and therefore the characterization of bituminous mixtures in different deformation modes is important for prediction of the performance of pavement structures. This paper presents a methodology for the bulk and shear characterization of bituminous mixtures in the linear viscoelastic domain, under the hypothesis of material isotropy, by means of uniaxial harmonic tests with the measurement of axial and transverse strains. The theoretical approach was based on the application of the elastic–viscoelastic correspondence principle and was validated by performing tension–compression tests at selected frequencies and temperatures on asphalt concrete specimens characterized by different volumetric properties. The results showed that since uniaxial tests induced both volume and shape variations, the simultaneous measurement of the complex bulk and shear moduli was possible. The validity of the time–temperature superposition principle was also verified for both deformation modes, allowing the construction of master curves for the bulk and shear moduli. The results also showed that the total dissipated energy could be decomposed into its volumetric and deviatoric fractions with excellent accuracy.     

Contact finite element analysis of three- and four-point short-beam bending of unidirectional composites

Detailed finite element stress analysis of both three-point and four-point short-beam bending specimens of a unidirectional glass-fibre/epoxy composite has been carried out. Contact elements are used to calculate the actual contact stresses and contact length at the roller. This gives more realistic stress distributions than those based on assumed load distributions. If the material is assumed to be linear, a parabolic assumption for the shear stress distribution is good for large parts of the beam between the loading and supporting rollers. However, higher shear stresses arise locally in the vicinity of the rollers. Taking account of the real nonlinear shear response of the material significantly reduces the shear stresses in the specimens.     

芳纶捆绑对纬编双轴向多层衬纱织物增强环氧树脂复合材料层间性能的影响

将芳纶作为捆绑纱制备纬编双轴向多层衬纱(MBWK)织物增强环氧树脂复合材料，研究了MBWK织物增强环氧树脂复合材料层间性能及芳纶捆绑纱对其层间性能的影响。通过三点弯曲和短梁剪切测试，得到MBWK织物增强环氧树脂复合材料的弯曲性能和层间剪切性能，并通过Aramis V6三维场应变测量系统观察实验过程中层间应变变化。与传统涤纶低弹丝捆绑的MBWK织物增强环氧树脂复合材料相比，芳纶捆绑MBWK织物增强环氧树脂复合材料的弯曲性能和层间剪切性能明显提升，弯曲强度和层间剪切强度分别提高了14.21%和12.70%；弯曲模量提高了25.49%。芳纶捆绑MBWK织物增强环氧树脂复合材料在受到面外载荷时，纵向应变(Epsilon X)和层间剪切应变(Epsilon XZ)在中性面区域内较大，且在受到面外载荷时，芳纶捆绑纱起到有效抑制复合材料分层的作用。      

Stress–strain curves of metallic materials and post‐necking strain hardening characterization: A review

For metallic materials, standard uniaxial tensile tests with round bar specimens or flat specimens only provide accurate equivalent stress–strain curve before diffuse necking. However, for numerical modelling of problems where very large strains occur, such as plastic forming and ductile damage and fracture, understanding the post‐necking strain hardening behaviour is necessary. Also, welding is a highly complex metallurgical process, and therefore, weldments are susceptible to material discontinuities, flaws, and residual stresses. It becomes even more important to characterize the equivalent stress–strain curve in large strains of each material zone in weldments properly for structural integrity assessment. The aim of this paper is to provide a state‐of‐the‐art review on quasi‐static standard tensile test for stress–strain curves measurement of metallic materials. Meanwhile, methods available in literature for characterization of the equivalent stress–strain curve in the post‐necking regime are introduced. Novel methods with axisymmetric notched round bar specimens for accurately capturing the equivalent stress–strain curve of each material zone in weldment are presented as well. Advantages and limitations of these methods are briefly discussed.     

Failure prediction for a glass/epoxy cruciform specimen under static biaxial loading

Material models were developed to predict the mechanical behavior of glass/epoxy multidirectional laminates under complex stress states. An incremental plane stress analysis was performed, taking into account the anisotropic material non-linearity, separate damage onset conditions and distinct post-failure stiffness degradation rules. Theoretical formulations were implemented in a shell element of the 1st order shear deformation theory. Numerical results were validated via comparison with test data from cruciform specimens subjected to static biaxial tensile loading. Local strain gauge and full-field strain measurements, obtained using the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique, corroborated numerical predictions. Improved strength and failure mode results were derived when, in addition to stiffness reduction, compressive strength degradation in the fiber direction was also considered.     

Use of digital image correlation to measure strain recovery in particle toughened thermoset resins

A methodology for finding the yield point of epoxy resins, both neat and particulate toughened, is described. Trends of the effect that particulate filling has on the time dependent response of these materials were constructed from observations made with stereo‐based digital image correlation (3D–DIC), namely, creep and stress relaxation at constant load. The use of 3D–DIC also enabled the observation of differences in deformation mechanisms resulting from the particle addition. The focus is put on the technique's potential to characterise materials and produce clear relationships between composition and mechanical strain response. The methodology proposed herein allows the observation and study of multiple deformation mechanisms from a single test, and thus can potentially minimise the number of specimens needed for a comprehensive test campaign.     

Compressive mechanical properties of closed-cell aluminum foam–polymer composites

The compressive mechanical properties of two kinds of closed-cell aluminum foam–polymer composites (aluminum–epoxy, aluminum–polyurethane) were studied. The nonhomogeneous deformation features of the composites are presented based on the deformation distributions measured by the digital image correlation (DIC) method. The strain fluctuations rapidly grow with an increase in the compressive load. The uneven level of the deformation for the aluminum–polyurethane composite is lower than that for the aluminum–epoxy composite. The region of the preferentially fractured aluminum cell wall can be predicted by the strain distributions in two directions. The mechanical properties of the composites are investigated and compared to those of the aluminum foams. The enhancement effect of the epoxy resin on the Young’s modulus, the Poisson’s ratio and the compressive strength of the aluminum foams is greater than that of the polyurethane resin.     

In situ study of short-beam shear tests for composite materials

The shear behaviour of a unidirectional E-glass/epoxy composite was studied with four-point short-beam bending tests carried out in the interior of a scanning electron microscope. The damage process of the composite was followed during the tests and the local matrix shear strain was measured. A relationship was established experimentally between the beam shear stress and the local interface shear strain. Finite element calculations gave the correct stress distribution in the beam.     

Experimental evaluation of creep and fatigue behaviour for microscale solder interconnect

This paper presents a novel experimental study for creep and fatigue of solder‐interconnects in microstructures. The strains are directly measured in the fillet area of solder‐joints with a typical linear dimension of 50 μm. An analytical approach is developed for calculating shear stress based on the shear strain measurement and the established solder constitutive relations. Also obtained is the strain‐rate as well as the separated elastic, plastic and creep components from the measured total strain. The data enables the determination of the strain energy density per temperature cycle for the characterization of the solder joint creep fatigue behaviour. Case studies provide evidence for the shear dominance and the creep fatigue mechanism in thermally induced solder joint deformation in surface‐mounted electronic assemblies. Though a similar trend of variation in stress–strain is found in the joints of different solders, the substantial differences in the hysteresis loop area and shape as well as in the creep rate suggest that the solder constitutive parameters should have a profound impact on the creep fatigue endurance of the joints.     

粘弹性材料本构模型的研究

介绍了近年来建立粘弹性材料本构模型的方法。目前主要有两种方法:利用现有本构模型;对粘弹性材料进行试验研究,拟合实验曲线。     

Incorporation of mean stress effects into the micromechanical analysis of the high strain rate response of polymer matrix composites

The results presented here are part of an ongoing research program, to develop strain rate dependent deformation and failure models for the analysis of polymer matrix composites subject to high strain rate impact loads. A micromechanics approach is employed in this work, in which state variable constitutive equations originally developed for metals have been modified to model the deformation of the polymer matrix, and a strength of materials based micromechanics method is used to predict the effective response of the composite. In the analysis of the inelastic deformation of the polymer matrix, the definitions of the effective stress and effective inelastic strain have been modified in order to account for the effect of hydrostatic stresses, which are significant in polymers. Two representative polymers, a toughened epoxy and a brittle epoxy, are characterized through the use of data from tensile and shear tests across a variety of strain rates. Results computed by using the developed constitutive equations correlate well with data generated via experiments. The procedure used to incorporate the constitutive equations within a micromechanics method is presented, and sample calculations of the deformation response of a composite for various fiber orientations and strain rates are discussed.     

环氧树脂复合泡沫材料的压缩力学性能

对空心玻璃微珠填充环氧树脂复合泡沫材料进行了准静态压缩实验, 研究了材料的宏观压缩力学性能, 并提出了弹性模量和屈服强度的预测公式。此外, 对压缩试件的断口进行了宏、细观观察, 研究了材料的压缩破坏机理。结果表明, 复合泡沫材料在压缩过程中, 具有普通泡沫材料的应力-应变曲线的典型特征, 在应变为2 %左右时材料发生屈服, 在应变大于30 %后发生破坏。此外, 材料的杨氏模量和强度均随密度的减小而下降, 预测公式给出的结果与实验值基本一致。压缩试件断口的宏、细观观察表明, 复合泡沫材料主要的破坏形式为剪切引起的弹塑性破坏。      

The shear properties and deformation mechanisms of porous metal fiber sintered sheets

Porous metal fiber sintered sheets (MFSSs) are a type of layered transversely isotropic open cell materials with low relative density (i.e., volume fraction of fibers), high specific stiffness and strength, and controllable precision for functional and structural applications. Based on a non-contact optical full field strain measurement system, the in-plane and transverse shear properties of SMFFs with relative densities ranging from 15% to 34% are investigated. For the in-plane shear, the modulus and strength are found to depend linearly upon the relative density. The associated deformation is mainly due to fiber stretching, accompanied by the direction change of metal fibers. When the shear loading is applied in the transverse direction, the deformation of the material is mainly owing to fiber bending, followed by the separation failure of the fiber joints. Measured results show that the transverse shear modulus and strength have quartic and cubic dependence upon the relative density respectively and are much lower than their in-plane counterparts. Simple micromechanics models are proposed for the in-plane and transverse moduli and strengths of MFSSs in shear. The predicted relationships between the shear mechanical properties of MFSSs and their relative density are obtained and are in good agreement with the measured ones.     

Constitutive modeling for large deformation behavior of thermoplastic olefin

A constitutive model has been developed to capture the rate-dependent large deformation behavior of the polypropylene (PP)/elastomer/inorganic filler ternary phase thermoplastic olefin (TPO). As the TPO exhibits elastic behavior of each constituent phase during elastic deformation and shear yielding of PP matrix after linear elastic loading. The elastic modulus of the composite is predicted using micromechanics theory. The viscoplastic behavior of TPO is described by a model which includes rate and temperature dependent yield, strain softening, and strain hardening. The material properties of the model are obtained from the uniaxial tensile test and then the model is examined for its ability to predict the response in deformation. It is proved that the large deformation features of the TPO composites are well described by the constitutive model.     

Finite Element Analysis and Experimental Measurement of Deformation Behavior for NiTi Plate With Stress Concentration Part Under Uniaxial Tensile Loading

Abstract: The aim of this study is to verify the effectiveness of ordinary phenomenological constitutive relation of NiTi shape memory alloy under mechanical loading at a constant temperature, sufficiently. First, finite element analysis is performed by using ordinary phenomenological constitutive relation for rectangular plate with double notch under tensile loading at a constant temperature. Next, uniaxial tensile loading is carried out for 50.5Ni49.5Ti rectangular plate with double notch. At the same time, macroscopic stress–strain curve and local strain distribution are measured by using in‐house measurement system on the basis of digital image correlation. As a result, it is found that the stress–strain curve obtained from finite element analysis is much different from those obtained experimental measurement, especially during stress‐induced martensite transformation. The result can be derived from the phenomena of local strain band behavior arising in NiTi under mechanical loading. The phenomenological constitutive model used in present finite element analysis is constructed under assumptions that the material has isotropic characteristics and shows homogeneous deformation. However, this experimental result suggests that the material itself has anisotropy microscopically. Furthermore, material shows unique inhomogeneous deformation. Also, there is possibility that these anisotropic characteristic and inhomogeneous deformation behaviour may derive from its microstructure. In future, to sufficiently describe the macroscopic stress–strain curve of NiTi we should take into consideration the material microstructure.