Inclusionary housing in the Netherlands: breaking the institutional path?

In an international comparative perspective, the Netherlands was relatively late in introducing Inclusionary Housing (Buitelaar and De Kam in Housing Theory and Society 29(1):56–64, 2012). Referring to a conceptual framework of the institutionalisation of planning regulations, the article links this late introduction, as well as the specific content, and the actual use of inclusionary housing (IH) measures to the context of the Dutch housing and planning system. In the Netherlands, the legal ‘package’ that in 2008 explicitly introduced the powers for local authorities to require IH (both for social/affordable housing and—a unique feature of the Dutch rules—also for privately commissioned housing) was strongly tied to new rules for cost recovery. The article partly draws on a review of existing studies, of the use made of these different elements of the Dutch IH measures, but its main empirical data come from a large survey of strategic choices made by housing associations in the land market. The paper shows that local authorities do use the new legal opportunity to prescribe IH in their land-use plans, but that there is a relatively low actual use of IH requirements ‘with a bite’ in the Netherlands. This outcome reflects the level of congruence of the IH requirements with formal and informal institutions in the Dutch systems for planning and housing. The institutional design of the rules is well attuned to existing path-dependent local policies which still deliver substantial numbers of new social and affordable housing without the use of IH. In these practices, value capturing is partly internalized in the operations of housing associations that develop mixed projects of social and commercial housing. In this respect, the real test of IH measures in the Netherlands is yet to come, depending on the resilience of tried and trusted (other) practices for providing social housing.     

Community engagement in regeneration: are we getting the point?

This paper starts by identifying the intended benefits of community engagement in regeneration according to policy theory. It then adds to the evidence base by assessing to what extent these aims are being achieved through community engagement in the latest cycle of area regeneration in the city of Glasgow. It is based on a qualitative study of residents’ experiences and perceptions of the regeneration planning process in three neighbourhoods undergoing major regeneration. Up to the period beyond regeneration planning, and into the early stages of implementation, community engagement had made contributions to some of the identified aims. However, there were weaknesses in relation to community empowerment beyond regeneration, community cohesion and effective implementation in particular. A series of recommendations are made; of particular importance is the necessity to maintain community engagement throughout the regeneration process, between planning and implementation, in order to ensure that any benefits are sustained.     

A silent shift? The precarisation of the Dutch rental housing market

The traditional Dutch rental contract is permanent (i.e. time unlimited), but there are indications that in recent years the number of temporary rental contracts has increased considerably. Dutch housing policy appears to be responding to this by pursuing deregulation of the conditions under which temporary rent is permitted. It is in this regard startling that there is no reliable data available about the size or character of the temporary sector, and it has thus far not attracted any scholarly attention. Given that temporary rent can be viewed as a form of precarisation, a transfer of risk to citizens, with corresponding negative effects on the lives of those involved, it is imperative to close this knowledge gap. This paper is a first attempt to do this. Firstly, I systematically review the scarce evidence that is currently available, and secondly, I explore why the rise of temporary rent has thus far failed to stimulate any social debate; it appears to constitute a silent precarisation that contrasts with the politically sensitive issue of labour precarisation. In doing so, I will identify the research questions that must be answered if the significance of this process for both tenants and wider welfare-state restructuring is to be fully understood.     

The German housing system: fundamentally resilient?

The initial research question was: How can we explain the fact that the German housing system was seemingly unaffected by the financial crisis? The relative macro-economic stability of the German economy is part of the story, but the initial question led to a more fundamental analysis of why there had been no precrisis excesses in the German housing market. The longer term lack of volatility in Germany is just as in need of explanation as the excesses elsewhere. An important part of the explanation may be the particular tenure structure of the German housing market—which is characterized by a low homeownership rate and a large market share for private landlords. This structure was shaped over time by institutional development. In particular, mortgage finance systems and habits did not develop independently of that tenure structure. Equally that tenure structure arises in part from regulation and housing subsidy systems that do not favour homeownership.     

How long should housing last? Some implications of the age and probable life of housing in England

The objective of this comment is to supplement the paper by Meikle and Connaughton, published in this journal. That paper concentrated on the non-replacement of an ageing housing stock, and the maintenance implications of the recent shift towards owner-occupation in England. The ethics behind this trend of tenure change were not questioned; an acceptance of ‘individual’ ownership and responsibility seemed apparent. The relative success of public sector housing management was not considered. This comment will aim to address this. While recent changes in housing tenure will create new problems to overcome, and will therefore need to be examined carefully, a multitude of existing problems remain. This comment will seek to illuminate one problem area: the effective management of multiple-unit housing stocks, and how this may provide a framework for the maintenance of the nation's ageing housing stock.     

Movers and Stayers on the housing market in the post‐parental stage: The Swedish case

The 1987 reform of the system of Acts on physical planning in Sweden is often referred to as a decentralization from central to local government. A review of the historical changes in Acts on Planning and Building in Sweden illustrates, however, a more complicated picture of central‐local government relations. This review, which focuses upon the constitutional‐legal dimension of this relationship, indicates shifts that have most often put central government in a more powerful position vis‐á‐vis local government. In addition, the last legal reform eliminates local government's rights to put a veto on the localization of certain industrial plants, which might cause legitimation conflicts.     

Silver bullet or trojan horse? The effects of inclusionary zoning on local housing markets in the United States

Many local governments are adopting inclusionary zoning (IZ) as a means of producing affordable housing without direct public subsidies. In this paper, panel data on IZ in the San Francisco metropolitan area and suburban Boston are used to analyse how much affordable housing the programmes produce and how IZ affects the prices and production of market-rate housing. The amount of affordable housing produced under IZ has been modest and depends primarily on how long IZ has been in place. Results from suburban Boston suggest that IZ has contributed to increased housing prices and lower rates of production during periods of regional house price appreciation. In the San Francisco area, IZ also appears to increase housing prices in times of regional price appreciation, but to decrease prices during cooler regional markets. There is no evidence of a statistically significant effect of IZ on new housing development in the Bay Area.     

Does size matter? The dynamics of housing sizes and prices in Hong Kong

Conventional analyses on real estate pricing strategy concentrate on the impact brought about by the existence of various physical and environmental attributes such as location, view and amenity effects. For each of these variables, the extent of impact across different property types seems to be rather constant. This, however, may not hold when it comes to a specific variable—size, especially in terms of per-square-foot price of the subject property. While it is a general perception that larger real estate should command a higher total price because of the simple logic of aggregating the unit price from a larger floor area, in some sub-sectors of the property market such as the retail property sector, it is not uncommon to find that larger shops tend to have relatively smaller unit price/rent compared to smaller shops, other things being equal. In this paper, the authors would like to show that in the residential sector in Hong Kong, this common market practice is being reverted when we find that larger residential flats command relatively higher per-unit price (and hence also the overall price of the subject property), making larger residential flat proportionately more expensive.     

Second homes in the Spanish housing market: one market or two?

This paper explores the relationship between primary and secondary homes in the overall Spanish housing market against the background of conflicting views on the nature of this relationship. Some of the theoretical arguments in favour of the independence of the two sectors are critiqued and a series of research questions on the precise nature of any relationship are posed. In answering these questions, a range of empirical data for different spatial scales is examined. It is concluded that, for indigenous Spaniards, the two sectors of the housing market are inter-related in various ways and that the most significant contemporary dichotomy in the Spanish housing market may be between Spaniards and foreigners rather than between primary and second homes.     

Driving in neutral: Is it the way forward for housing policy?

The `libertarian' argument of PeterKing aims to put tenure neutrality and a negativeincome tax in place of current government supportfor housing. However, formulating rules for tenureneutrality is hard and the negative income tax mayrequire unacceptably high taxes. Real worldcomplexity makes such simple rules with regard tohousing difficult to achieve. Such complexity alsohelps to make a case for social housing.     

Why there? Developers' rationale for building social housing in the urban periphery in Latin America

Inadequate housing has become endemic to Latin American cities for over six decades. All that has changed has been who is going where. In the 1960s, the rural poor who came to the city solved their housing needs by building their own informal settlements on peri-urban lands. Today, the urban poor relocate to peri-urban housing complexes built by the private sector with state subsidies. Why have these new housing units for low-income households been built in peri-urban areas? This paper examines some of the mechanisms behind the location of the urban poor in cities, with a specific focus on the role developers have played in the construction of affordable housing in peri-urban areas of Brazil and, Mexico. The paper explores these mechanisms through interviews with affordable housing developers. We found that economies of scale – and not land prices – explain developers' preference for building in peripheral areas. Initial savings that accrue to developers due to lower land prices in the periphery are offset by the cost of having to build basic onsite infrastructure. Plus, large lots – which are available almost exclusively in urban peripheries – enable developers to achieve significant cost savings because these large lots make it possible for developers to build more than 500 units. In addition, weaker municipal regulations and fewer bidders, both of which are typical for projects in difficult-to-access peripheral locations, make for a shorter and easier approval process for these large housing projects.     

Shared ownership: The socialisation or privatisation of housing?

Shared ownership schemes are being introduced in Australia at a time when there has been a considerable shift in community attitudes towards the role of the public sector. This shift has brought both a push for privatisation and a push for improved targeting of public expenditure.

The emergence of support for shared ownership can be interpreted, in turn, as a desire to prop up home ownership; a means of reducing public expenditure on housing and/or an attempt to improve the targeting of support provided by public housing. Shared ownership has been heralded as the new way of providing social housing by its protagonists and decried as a means of diverting scarce resources from more pressing needs by its critics. Which of these is paramount depends on the way in which shared ownership schemes are implemented.

This paper outlines a basic framework within which an unsubsidised shared ownership scheme can work and indicates how a subsidised approach can be introduced without threatening funds provided for public housing.     

Is there suitable housing near work? The impact of housing suitability on commute distances in Montreal,Toronto, and Vancouver

This paper makes a novel contribution by examining the impacts of housing suitability on the commute. Smart Growth and related planning policies have contributed to higher residential densities with the aim to reduce commute distances and enhance urban sustainability. While important in terms of alleviating sprawl, reductions in space accompanying increases in densities may not be suitable for larger households. If households instead commute longer distances, the sustainability objective of minimizing commute distances is undercut. We operationalize housing suitability at the household level in different ways, analysing the characteristics of housing available near the place of work in relation to the housing suitability needs based on household characteristics. Regardless of the measure used, the better the match between workers’ housing suitability needs and the housing stock available near work, the shorter the commute. The paper uniquely highlights the importance of explicitly considering housing suitability in planning for sustainability.     

Housing indicators in europe,a tool for housing research and housing policy?

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Housing indicators in europe, a tool for housing research and housing policy?     

Housing the very poor or the young? Implications of the changing public housing policy in South Korea

Abstract

This paper discusses the reorganization of the roles of the national and local governments in public housing policy alongside decentralization, with particular reference to South Korea. Focusing on policy changes over the past decade, it reveals that rather than retrenchment amid a push towards greater local autonomy, the national government has diversified and expanded its public housing policy, and is increasingly pursuing a universal approach to public housing. Through case studies of Seoul and Gyeonggi, it also shows how the two local governments have become creative suppliers of public housing that is more customized to the local context. In particular, it highlights the rising emphasis on targeting young people rather than the very poor in public housing policies, a shift that is partly a legacy of Korea’s ‘productivist’ welfare state. The paper closes by discussing the implications of this latest policy trend, especially on local–national policy coordination.     

Social housing in Spain: what role does the private rented market play?

The global economic and financial crisis has hit the Spanish economy hard, creating an unstable framework for employment and growth. Since 2007, housing markets have been deeply affected by the crisis. The private rented market has exhibited two specific consequences: on the one hand, the bursting of the real estate bubble has inhibited profit gains in the homeownership sector, providing better incentives to operate in the rented market. On the other hand, huge social conflict has emerged in relation to the lack of proper shelter for certain households which can be seen in the increase in evictions and in homelessness. We want to focus on the latter: since Spain lacks a critical mass of social housing, low-income households have been attracted by the private rented sector, particularly during expansion periods, as quite often there is no available (and affordable) alternative. In periods of economic recession, the substantial pressure that rents put on the financial situation of these households might even cause them to move out of their homes. The hypothesis we will test in this paper is that private rented markets fill several aspects of the role of social housing provision in Spain reinforcing the negative effects the lack of social housing creates in the country, highly visible during recession periods.     

Democracy and non-profit housing. The tensions of residents’ involvement in the Danish non-profit sector

Resident democracy as a special form of participatory democratic set-up is fundamental in the understanding, and self-understanding, of the non-profit housing sector in Denmark. Through a case study, the paper explores how resident democracy is perceived and narrated between residents and employees at a housing association. The study indicates that the meta-story of democracy is disconnected from practice and the lived lives of residents. Three analytical tensions structure the analysis, which relate to the conditions for realizing the democratic ideal embedded in the structure of the sector. The tensions are related to representative versus participatory democracy; collectivity versus individuality; and service versus welfare. The tensions elucidate how resident democracy is squeezed between different logics, which result in an ambiguous setting for practising democracy. Based on the results, the article discusses conditions for prospective democracy in the Danish non-profit housing sector.     

Reframing social mix in affordable housing initiatives in Italy and in the Netherlands. Closing the gap between discourses and practices?

European countries are facing rising demand for affordable housing by a widespread and differentiated audience. Both in Italy and in the Netherlands policy-makers and practitioners address this emerging need by implementing new social housing projects targeting diverse social groups – such as students, young households, welfare dependents, and refugees – which results in a fine-grained social mix. This paper discusses the development of these initiatives within wider trends in housing policies and in relation to the domestic debate on social mix in the two countries. Drawing on Magic Mix and Housing Sociale projects as case studies, respectively in the Netherlands and in Italy, we aim to explore and unfold the contemporary meanings and the practices attached to the idea of social mix. In so doing, this paper paves the way for a new conceptualization of social mix in the current post-crisis and hyper-diversified European scenario. We discuss traces of continuity and discontinuity between these forms of social mix and the mainstream idea of tenure mix, which has been a cornerstone of area-based urban renewal policy in many European countries. This paper contributes to the existing literature by offering insights into new practices of social mix in housing sphere.     

Does the tender,auction and listing system in land promote higher housing prices in China?

Using monthly data on national housing prices from July 1998 to June 2015, we investigate the effect of the ‘Tender, Auction and Listing’ (hereafter TAL) system on housing prices in land, implemented on 31 August 2004. We apply the additional polynomial regression discontinuity method which effectively eliminates the effects of several confounding factors such as financial crisis, ‘New National Ten Provisions’ and ‘9.30 New Regime’. We find that, although the TAL has caused the national average housing prices to go up by 10%, accounting for 11% of total increase in housing prices in the last year, it does not constitute the major driver for housing prices. Furthermore, our results indicate that TAL has exerted a larger impact on commercial and residential properties, especially in the middle and west regions. By examining the transmission mechanisms, we find that the effects of TAL are mainly via government’s starvation-style land supply effect and market-reshuffling effect.