Neuroimaging and Psychopharmacology.

This review presents the most recent research concerning neuroimaging in developmental disabilities. Changes in structure and activation have been found in children with ADHD and learning disabilities, following intervention. For the children with learning disabilities changes in activation have been found following intensive behavioral and academic intervention. Structural and activation differences in the auditory processing regions of the brain were found prior to academic intervention, with activation differences found for those children responding to the reading programs. Children with ADHD have been found to show differences in brain structures with few studies evaluating the differences in activation following medication. Emerging evidence indicates differences in the frontal regions of the brain for children who respond successfully to medication. Finally, a discussion of the variables that can impact the results in neuroimaging studies is presented. Further study is needed in this area, and additional variables of concern are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Short-term memory processes in children with reading and arithmetic learning disabilities.

Examined the role of phonemic coding in short-term memory in 45 children with a reading disability, 38 children with a specific arithmetic disability, and 89 normal children, as measured by the Wide Range Achievement Test. Ss, aged 7–13 yrs, were administered a series of tasks that involved the visual or auditory presentation of rhyming and nonrhyming letters and either an oral or a written response. Younger Ss (7–8 yrs) with a reading disability did not show any difference between the recall of nonrhyming and rhyming letters, whereas normal Ss of the same age did. Older reading-disabled Ss (aged 9–23 yrs), like their normal counterparts, had significantly poorer recall of rhyming as opposed to nonrhyming letters. However, their overall levels of performance were significantly lower than normals. The same pattern was found with Ss with arithmetic disabilities for the visual presentation of stimuli. For the auditory presentation of stimuli, the performance of Ss with arithmetic disabilities resembled that of normals, except at the youngest ages. Whereas a deficiency in phonological coding may characterize younger children with learning disabilities, older children with learning disabilities appear to use a phonemic code but have a more general deficit in short-term memory. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinical neuropsychology.

Clinical neuropsychology is a specialty of professional psychology that is based on knowledge of brain-behavior relationships and particularly abnormal brain functioning. In addition to specialized neurobehavioral evaluations, services provided by clinical neuropsychologists include interventions and consultation regarding persons with congenital and acquired brain disorders. Competent neuropsychological assessment relies on knowledge of clinical neuroscience, developmental changes, and appropriate tests and norms, and it requires skills in history taking and integration of behavioral, psychological, and neurological data. Training guidelines for this specialty, proposed by the 1997 Houston Conference on Specialty Education and Training in Clinical Neuropsychology, recommend that new practitioners have acquired advanced knowledge of brain-behavior relationships and have completed a 2-year postdoctoral residency that provides relevant supervised clinical experience. Future challenges facing clinical neuropsychology include increasing the number of appropriately credentialed practitioners, creating a role as providers of functional neuroimaging procedures, preserving test security in forensic evaluations, and adapting tests for demographic and language differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Treatment of learning disorders

INTRODUCTION: The child neurologist, developmental pediatrician or child psychiatrist involved in the care of children with learning disabilities has a crucial role that extends beyond diagnosis. DEVELOPING: Despite the lack of sound scientific studies on treatment interventions for children with learning disabilities there are specific interventions that are helpful in the remediation of children with learning disabilities. CONCLUSIONS: The role of the health professional in the treatment of learning disabilities includes: 1. Making specific recommendations regarding early intervention strategies; 2. Putting into a neurological perspective the types of educational interventions that will maximize a child's potential; 3. Discussing the role of medications in the management of learning disorders, as well as using medications in appropriate situations, and 4. Coordinating the multimodal approach which is essential to the long term treatment of all children with learning disabilities.     

Can educational psychology be neurologized?

Proposes that a synthesis of clinical neurology and educational knowledge is useful in solving practical educational problems. Surveys of teachers, of references made in educational journals, and of statements in educational texts reveal not only ignorance of neurology but recommendations against its being studied by teachers. It is asserted that some basic neurological knowledge may be useful for regular classroom teachers. It is particularly important in understanding brain-damaged students and can be used in educational planning for children with learning disabilities. Such cross-disciplinary mixing may also increase knowledge of the brain-behavior relationship. (French summary) (41 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social outcomes in childhood brain disorder: A heuristic integration of social neuroscience and developmental psychology.

The authors propose a heuristic model of the social outcomes of childhood brain disorder that draws on models and methods from both the emerging field of social cognitive neuroscience and the study of social competence in developmental psychology/psychopathology. The heuristic model characterizes the relationships between social adjustment, peer interactions and relationships, social problem solving and communication, social-affective and cognitive-executive processes, and their neural substrates. The model is illustrated by research on a specific form of childhood brain disorder, traumatic brain injury. The heuristic model may promote research regarding the neural and cognitive-affective substrates of children's social development. It also may engender more precise methods of measuring impairments and disabilities in children with brain disorder and suggest ways to promote their social adaptation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Learning disabilities and brain function: A neuropsychological approach (rev. ed.).

Reviews the book, Learning disabilities and brain function: A neuropsychological approach (rev. ed.), by William H. Gaddes (1985). The neurological substrata of intellectual functioning have long been a topic of interest to psychologists; but with the development of the learning disabilities classification and the interest in the brain, learning behavior relationships have expanded to include the entire educational community. This book, like the first edition, has been designed to draw together the neuropsychologist, the school psychologist, and teacher in common cause. In doing so, it helps to bridge a traditional interdisciplinary communications gap. There is a need for neuropsychological training of school psychologists. This book helps to bring this knowledge to bear directly on practice in the field of learning disabilities. Advantages of the second edition over the first are the inclusion of discussions of new techniques (i.e., new brain scanning devices and methods, new applications of dichotic listening) and expanded examples of case studies. The reviewers feel that Gaddes has provided an updated, thorough treatment of the role of neuropsychology in the diagnosis and remediation of the learning-disabled child. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Environmental Toxicants and Developmental Disabilities: A Challenge for Psychologists.

Developmental, learning, and behavioral disabilities are a significant public health problem. Environmental chemicals can interfere with brain development during critical periods, thereby impacting sensory, motor, and cognitive function. Because regulation in the United States is based on limited testing protocols and essentially requires proof of harm rather than proof of lack of harm, some undefined fraction of these disabilities may reflect adverse impacts of this "vast toxicological experiment" (H. L. Needleman, as quoted in B. Weiss & P. J. Landrigan, 2000, p. 373). Yet the hazards of environmental pollutants are inherently preventable. Psychologists can help prevent developmental disabilities by mobilizing and affecting public policy, educating and informing consumers, contributing to interdisciplinary research efforts, and taking action within their own homes and communities to reduce the toxic threat to children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of "To Laugh: To Play: To Learn."

Reviews the film, To Laugh: To Play: To Learn produced by the Canadian Educational and Psychological Consultants Ltd. To Laugh: To Play: To Learn is a series of two 30 minute color films on the diagnosis and treatment of Learning Disabilities. The first film in the series, "An Introduction to Learning Disabilities" is well organized, interesting and has a certain charm. The film contains a substantial body of knowledge which could provide the basis for several hours of lecture or discussion. The film is a useful and charming approach to learning disabilities, but to gain the greatest value from it, the commentator should have some first-hand experience of clinical neuropsychology and learning disabled children. The second film in the series, "There is a Way," attempts to examine a number of common problems of children with learning disabilities. It begins with a demonstration of a learning machine for teaching arithmetic and moves on to perceptual discrimination, a demonstration of several remedial procedures, the use of medication for hyperactivity, the emotional and social development of the child, learning games, and interviews with two teenagers who had been successfully helped to circumvent or resolve their learning problems. While all of these topics are important, their discussion in a 30 minute film is necessarily brief and sometimes superficial. In spite of this, the film should be useful in presenting the ideas and problems for group or class discussion. Like the first film, it is given considerable diversity by a large number of short interviews and demonstrations with a variety of people and children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning disabilities and executive dysfunction in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

The effect of comorbid reading or arithmetic learning disabilities (LDs) on neuropsychological function in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was studied. Participants were young males diagnosed with ADHD, with and without LD, and non-ADHD, non-LD male controls of similar age. LD was defined by combined regression-based and low-achievement classifications. Analyses adjusted for the effect of psychiatric comorbidity, age, and socioeconomic status on neuropsychological function. Children who had both ADHD and LD were significantly more impaired on both executive and nonexecutive functions than ADHD children without LD. Neuropsychological performance was most impaired in ADHD with combined arithmetic and reading disability. These data indicate that comorbid LD, especially arithmetic disability, significantly increases the severity of executive function impairment in ADHD. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Learning disabilities and brain function: A neuropsychological approach (2nd edition).

Reviews the book, Learning disabilities and brain function: A neuropsychological approach (2nd edition) by William H. Gaddes (1985). No clinician/researcher has expended more effort over a longer period of time to effect a melding of neuropsychology and educational practice than has William Gaddes. His efforts in this area have been prodigious and insightful; his published work, highly influential. Thus, it is with eager anticipation that one approaches the second edition of his most important work, Learning disabilities and brain function: A neuropsychological approach. On many counts, this anticipation is richly rewarded by the many fine features of the work, including its breadth of coverage, its presentation of research findings from many disciplines, and its clinical savvy. Gaddes has attempted to provide a very complete and articulated view of a neuropsychological approach to learning disabilities. Drawing on research in the basic neurosciences, basic and applied psychology and education, and a wealth of personal clinical experience with brain-impaired youngsters, Gaddes does not shrink from forging quite explicit links between normal and altered brain function on the one hand and learning on the other. This constitutes both the strength and the weakness of this work: Its strength lies in the wealth of information and provocative insights provided; its weakness, in the sometimes rather concrete fashion in which brain/behaviour relationships and their remedial implications are stated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An early intervention model for pediatric settings.

Four groups of preschool children are likely to present to pediatricians in private or hospital practice: those with (a) developmental disabilities identifiable at a young age, (b) illnesses or handicaps, (c) temperamental traits predisposing to parent–child interaction problems, and (d) behavior problems. Parents view pediatricians as experts in child development and thus seek their guidance. Yet, many of these children will require treatment beyond the pediatrician's office. The Early Intervention Program (EIP) for Preschoolers and Parents is intended for such children. Organized into modules that focus on specific needs of the child and/or the parent–child interaction, EIP emphasizes parent training and skills development through applying behavioral–social learning principles. The modules include individual tutoring in speech and self-help skills, toddler management for behavioral compliance, and classrooms for developing school readiness skills and cooperative peer relationships. EIP is consistent with the treatment orientation of pediatricians and can serve as a useful training resource for pediatric residents. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social acceptance and rejection of preschool children with disabilities: A mixed-method analysis.

Eighty children with disabilities enrolled in a nationally distributed set of inclusive preschool programs participated in this study. The average age of the participants was 3.9 years, and 60% were male. The children exhibited a range of disabilities and developmental levels. Using a mixed-method approach, the authors established quantitative criteria for identifying children with disabilities who were socially accepted and socially rejected by their peer group, and qualitative methods revealed themes associated with social participation of each group. Cluster analyses of themes identified 3 clusters associated with social acceptance (e.g., awareness-interest, communication-play, friendship-social skills) and 2 clusters associated with social rejection (e.g., social withdrawal, conflict-aggression). Subsequent cluster analyses of children and matrix analyses illustrated how child social participation was related to superordinate theme clusters and constructs of acceptance and rejection. Socially accepted children tended to have disabilities that were less likely to affect social problem solving and emotional regulation, whereas children who were socially rejected had disabilities that were more likely to affect such skills and developmental capacities. Implications of this research for theory and practice are proposed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Right hemisphere dysfunction in nonverbal learning disabilities: Social, academic, and adaptive functioning in adults and children.

Addresses recent research on social and nonverbal learning disabilities. Involvement of right hemispheric dysfunction in these disabilities has been hypothesized, as studies with adults have suggested that documented right hemisphere damage may lead to deficits in social skills, prosody, spatial orientation, problem solving, and recognition of nonverbal cues. Studies of children purported to evidence nonverbal learning disabilities are reviewed and compared with the results from studies of adults with right hemisphere damage. Specific subtypes of nonverbal learning disabilities are reviewed, including the nonverbal perceptual-organization-output subtype, Asperger's syndrome, Developmental Gerstmann syndrome, left hemisyndrome, right hemisphere syndrome, and right parietal lobe syndrome. Finally, implications and future research needs are addressed. The need for a diagnostic nosology and improved and validated intervention techniques is stressed as is early identification of these types of specific nonverbal learning disabilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The interanimal transfer phenomenon: A review.

The phenomenon described as interanimal transfer of learned responses from trained donor animals to untrained recipient animals by means of brain extracts has been regarded as problematic by many investigators and has generated extensive literature. Among major issues have been the reproducibility of the phenomenon and the viability of a learning interpretation of the recipients' behavior. The learning interpretation, if correct, makes direct experimental approaches to brain-behavior relationships feasible in the context of learning and memory. The review led to a number of conclusions with respect to the issues and evidence. Reproducibility has become less of a problem but has not been eliminated. Several species have been used successfully, and the effect has been reported over a wide range of tasks. The transfer effect, considered at a behavioral level of analysis, exhibits an empirical relationship with donor training and learning. While there is also evidence of a transfer of a nonspecific arousal factor, it cannot account for all of the data. Given the relatively crude extracts used in many cases, a 2-factor explanation of transfer appears most likely, in which an arousal transfer occurs under one set of conditions, and a learning transfer under others. The behavioral challenge resulting from this notion is the clear separation of the 2 effects. Biological and chemical mechanisms of the effect have not been widely researched, possibly due to a lack of formal consensus about what the transfer effect represents and thus its significance. (3 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of gene regulation in song circuit development and song learning

The songbird has emerged as an important model for study of brain-behavior relationships by virtue of its rich natural advantages and from the pioneering efforts of explorers using anatomical and behavioral approaches. Now, molecular biology is providing a new and complementary paradigm for discerning songbird brain organization and function. Here, I review the work over the last 10 years that has laid the foundation for approaching songbird biology from the molecular perspective. As a result of this work, specific hypotheses can now be framed and tested regarding the mechanisms behind song circuit formation, behavioral plasticity, and the boundaries of adaptability. Age-related changes in more than 15 molecules have been observed in the song system of juvenile zebra finches, and these changes seem to define specific phases in circuit development. In adult songbirds, ordinary song-related activities such as singing and listening cause dramatic increases in gene expression in brain areas specific to each activity. The sensitivity of gene activation is modulated as a result of experience in adulthood and also changes during juvenile song learning. These studies have provided unexpected insights into the functional organization of the song circuit and the potential role of extrinsic modulatory systems in directing and limiting plastic change in the brain. With this rich base of knowledge, and techniques of gene manipulation on the horizon, answers to old questions seem within our reach: What sets the boundaries of neural plasticity? What limits learning?     

Reaction time responding in rats

The use of reaction time has a great tradition in the field of human information processing research. In animal research the use of reaction time test paradigms is mainly limited to two research fields: the role of the striatum in movement initiation; and aging. It was discussed that reaction time responding can be regarded as "single behavior", this term was used to indicate that only one behavioral category is measured, allowing a better analysis of brain-behavior relationships. Reaction time studies investigating the role of the striatum in motor functions revealed that the initiation of a behavioral response is dependent on the interaction of different neurotransmitters (viz. dopamine, glutamate, GABA). Studies in which lesions were made in different brain structures suggested that motor initiation is dependent on defined brain structures (e.g. medialldorsal striatum, prefrontal cortex). It was concluded that the use of reaction time measures can indeed be a powerful tool in studying brain-behavior relationships. However, there are some methodological constraints with respect to the assessment of reaction time in rats, as was tried to exemplify by the experiments described in the present paper. On the one hand one should try to control for behavioral characteristics of rats that may affect the validity of the parameter reaction time. On the other hand, the mean value of reaction time should be in the range of what has been reported in man. Although these criteria were not always met in several studies, it was concluded that reaction time can be validly assessed in rats. Finally, it was discussed that the use of reaction time may go beyond studies that investigate the role of the basal ganglia in motor output. Since response latency is a direct measure of information processing this parameter may provide insight into basic elements of cognition. Based on the significance of reaction times in human studies the use of this dependent variable in rats may provide a fruitful approach in studying brain-behavior relationships in cognitive functions.     

Psychosocial dimensions of learning disabilities: external validation and relationship with age and academic functioning

This study was designed to assess the following in a group of 152 children with learning disabilities between the ages of 7 and 13 years: (a) the relationships between age and psychosocial functioning: (b) the relationships among psychosocial functioning, cognitive abilities, and academic achievement; and (c) the external validity of statistically derived psychosocial subtypes. Participants were assigned to one of seven psychosocial subtypes on the basis of a profile-matching algorithm. Overall, the findings suggested no increase in psychopathology with advancing age. In addition, clear relationships were found between academic achievement patterns and personality subtypes. Finally, the subtypes could be distinguished on the basis of a behavior problem checklist not used for the construction of the subtypes.     

Hypoglycemia in children

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to determine whether persons with developmental dyspraxia and apraxia make similar errors during the performance of four types of tasks. METHOD: Three groups of subjects with dyspraxia or apraxia (i.e., children with learning disabilities and dyspraxia, young adults with learning disabilities and dyspraxia, older adults with left-hemisphere brain damage with apraxia) and three groups of age-matched control subjects (i.e., children, young adults, older adults) were observed performing transitive, intransitive, verbal command, and imitation tasks. Performance was scored on the basis of the types of errors made. Errors were classified as conceptual (nonrelated, unrecognizable, sequencing) or production (omission, perseveration, related, internal configuration, external configuration, incorrect movement, body part as object). RESULTS: No significant difference was found between conceptual and production error patterns for any group. In addition, there was no significant difference between the dyspraxia and apraxia groups or among the control groups on the specific types of production errors made. However, the dyspraxia and apraxia groups differed in the type of conceptual error made on the intransitive task. The body-part-as-object error was the most frequently made error on the transitive, verbal command, and imitation tasks, whereas the movement error was the most frequently made error on the intransitive task. CONCLUSION: Subjects with dyspraxia or apraxia make similar errors, suggesting that the praxis behaviors are similar.     

A critique of the application of sensory integration therapy to children with learning disabilities

Sensory integration (SI) therapy is a controversial--though popular--treatment for the remediation of motor and academic problems. It has been applied primarily to children with learning disabilities, under the assumption that such children (or at least a subgroup of them) have problems in sensory integration to which some or all of their learning difficulties can be ascribed. The present article critically examines the related issues of whether children with learning disabilities differentially exhibit concomitant problems in sensory integration, and whether such children are helped in any way by means specific to SI therapy. An overview of theoretical contentions and empirical findings pertaining to the first issue is presented, followed by a detailed review of recent studies in the SI therapy research literature, in an effort to resolve the second issue. Results of this critique raise serious doubts as to the validity or utility of SI therapy as an appropriate, indicated treatment for the clinical population in question--and, by extension, for any other groups diagnosed as having "sensory integrative dysfunction." It is concluded that the current fund of research findings may well be sufficient to declare SI therapy not merely an unproven, but a demonstrably ineffective, primary or adjunctive remedial treatment for learning disabilities and other disorders.