Fire-resistant nonwovens of EVOH and PET treated with amorphous sodium polyborate

Nonwovens made of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) and ethylene–vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH) are found to become highly fire resistant by treating with amorphous sodium polyborate (SPB). The fire-resistant nonwovens with 10-mm thickness show a gradual temperature increase up to 127 °C and no hole, when their back sides are fired with a gas burner for 12 min. The analysis using the EPMA and the DTA/TG indicates that the SPB foam promotes the formation of char (carbon) layer, and that the char layer together with the SPB foam insulates inside from the oxygen and the heat.     

Formation of novel thermoplastic composites using bicomponent nonwovens as a precursor

This study focuses on a novel technique to produce thermoplastic composites directly from bicomponent nonwovens without using any resins or binders. Conceptually, the structure of the bicomponent fibers making up these nonwovens already mimics the fiber–matrix structure of fiber reinforced composites. Using this approach, we successfully produced isotropic thermoplastic composites with polymer combinations of polyethylene terephthalate/polyethylene (PET/PE), polyamide-6/polyethylene (PA6/PE), polyamide-6/polypropylene (PA6/PP), and PP/PE. The effects of processing temperature, fiber volume fraction, and thickness of the preform on the formation and structure of the nonwoven composites were discussed. Processing temperatures of 130 and 165 °C for PE and PP matrices, respectively, resulted in intact composite structures with fewer defects, for fiber volume fraction values of up to 51%. Moreover, an insight into the changes on the fine structure of the bicomponent fibers after processing was provided to better explain the mechanics behind the process. It is hypothesized that the composite fabrication process can result in annealing and increases the degree of crystallinity and melting temperature of polymers by thickening lamellae and/or removing imperfections. One of the other outcomes of this study is to establish what combination of mechanical properties (tensile and impact) nonwoven composites can offer. Our results showed that compared to glass mat reinforced thermoplastic composites, these novel isotropic nonwoven composites offer high specific strength (97 MPa/g cm⁻³ for PA6/PE), very high strain to failure (152% for PP/PE), and superior impact strength (147 kJ/m² for PA6/PP) which can be desirable in many critical applications.     

低密度阻燃聚氨酯硬质泡沫的制备及性能初探

以聚醚多元醇、异氰酸酯、三乙烯二胺、二甲乙醇胺、二月桂酸二丁基锡、1,1-二氯-1-氟代乙烷(HCFC-141B)、水、硬泡硅油、三(2-氯丙基)磷酸酯等为原料,制备了聚氨酯硬质泡沫。实验考察了发泡剂、异氰酸酯、阻燃剂用量对聚氨酯泡沫性能的影响。结果表明,每100 g聚醚中加入1.25 g水、33.54 g HCFC-141B和155.01 g异氰酸酯时,产品的力学性能和尺寸稳定性较好。当阻燃剂用量为22.59 g时,材料的燃烧性能得到改善。实验初步确定了发泡的较优配方,得到了性能较好的聚氨酯硬质泡沫。扫描电镜(SEM)测试表明泡孔呈近似球形、各向同性的闭孔结构,孔径分布较均匀。     

Characterization of nonwoven structures by spatial partitioning of local thickness and mass density

In this investigation the distributions of local mass, thickness, and density for various nonwoven materials were mapped and analyzed. Non-contacting twin laser profilometry was used to map 10 mm square regions to a resolution of 25 μm. The areal distribution of mass was obtained using β-transmission radiographic imaging. Samples were selected from three common categories: nonwoven hybrids, polymer extruded nonwovens, and wet laid nonwovens. Several samples had embossed regions where the structure was compressed by melt bonding to impart strength. Structural maps were partitioned using binary masks to isolate the embossed features from the stochastic background structure. The joint distributions of thickness versus areal density were plotted and used to characterize the separated regions. Based on the structural distributions obtained from mapped regions, the background structure of most of the samples provided similar results to those observed for other stochastic fibrous web materials, such as paper. The wet laid samples and one spun-bonded extruded polymer nonwoven appeared stochastic with good correlation between local thickness and local areal mass density. In contrast samples with induced features such as embossing, melt bonding, and calendering show that thickness became independent of mass as a result. Examination of the thickness distributions within embossed regions for different samples showed different responses to compression that appeared dependent on material density and thickness.     

Recyclable flame retardant nonwoven for sound absorption; RUBA®

A flame retardant nonwoven fabric for sound absorption, using para-aramid fibre and polyester fibre as a substitute for conventional materials (such as glass wool, flame retardant foam and flame retardant polyester fibre) was investigated. A combination of nonwoven fabric and paper was studied, and the resulting sound absorption qualities and sound permeation loss were compared. By attaching para-aramid paper with less than 30 cc/sec/cm² of permeability to nonwoven fabric, the sound absorption performance at over 2000 Hz was better than that of glass wool. We named this material “Flame Retardant Nonwoven Fabric for Sound Absorption” RUBA®.     

Effect of Oxygen Enrichment in Propane Laminar Diffusion Flames under Microgravity and Earth Gravity Conditions

Diffusion flames are the most common type of flame which we see in our daily life such as candle flame and match-stick flame. Also, they are the most used flames in practical combustion system such as industrial burner (coal fired, gas fired or oil fired), diesel engines, gas turbines, and solid fuel rockets. In the present study, steady-state global chemistry calculations for 24 different flames were performed using an axisymmetric computational fluid dynamics code (UNICORN). Computation involved simulations of inverse and normal diffusion flames of propane in earth and microgravity condition with varying oxidizer compositions (21, 30, 50, 100 % O₂, by mole, in N₂). 2 cases were compared with the experimental result for validating the computational model. These flames were stabilized on a 5.5 mm diameter burner with 10 mm of burner length. The effect of oxygen enrichment and variation in gravity (earth gravity and microgravity) on shape and size of diffusion flames, flame temperature, flame velocity have been studied from the computational result obtained. Oxygen enrichment resulted in significant increase in flame temperature for both types of diffusion flames. Also, oxygen enrichment and gravity variation have significant effect on the flame configuration of normal diffusion flames in comparison with inverse diffusion flames. Microgravity normal diffusion flames are spherical in shape and much wider in comparison to earth gravity normal diffusion flames. In inverse diffusion flames, microgravity flames were wider than earth gravity flames. However, microgravity inverse flames were not spherical in shape.     

Microwave absorbing composite lattice grids

Stretching dominated lattice grids reinforced by glass fibers and carbon fibers filled with spongy materials were designed and manufactured to achieve multifunctional structures with microwave absorbing abilities. The reflectivity of the GFRC and CFRC grid panels was measured in the darkroom at normal and oblique incidences, respectively. GFRC grid panels of 20 mm thickness and CFRC panels of 18 mm thickness displayed excellent microwave absorbing abilities in the range from 4 GHz to 18 GHz. The reflectivity of the grid panels is poorer than that of the foam panels in the range from 4 GHz to 10 GHz, but is better in the range from 10 GHz to 18 GHz. That difference in the reflectivity enhancement is explained by the grating lobe mechanism. The studies show that the composite grid panels are structural absorbent with weight efficiency.     

Effect of the geometry of flattened tube on the thermal performance of a high temperature generator

The present study numerically investigated the effect of the geometry of flattened tube on the thermal performance of a high temperature generator (HTG) with the pre-mixed surface flame burner of the double effect LiBr–water absorption system. The heat transfer tubes of the HTG were consisted with a set of circular and flattened tubes in series. FLUENT, as a commercial code, was applied for estimating the thermal performance of the HTG. Key parameters were the aspect ratio of flattened tubes, rib transversal length, and the rib pitch ratio on the flattened tube of the HTG. The maximum heat transfer rate of the HTG was obtained at the aspect ratio of 6.8 for the flattened tube. The heat transfer rate for the flattened tube was increased by 4.2% as the rib transversal length was increased from 2 mm to 3 mm. The heat transfer rate of the flattened tube with the rib pitch ratio of 15.3 was higher by the maximum 5.8% than that without rib. The heat transfer rate of the HTG with the rib of the rib transversal length of 3 mm and the rib pitch ratio of 15.3 was higher by 3.4% than that without the rib. It led that the exhaust gas temperature of the HTG with the rib was lower by 23 °C than that without the rib.     

Comparison of the crushing performance of hollow and foam-filled small-scale composite tubes with different geometrical shapes for use in sacrificial cladding structures

This paper presents the quasi-static crushing performance of nine different geometrical shapes of small-scale glass/polyester composite tubes filled with polyurethane closed-cell foam for use in sacrificial cladding structures. The effect of polyurethane foam on the crushing characteristics and the corresponding energy absorption is addressed for each geometrical shape of the composite tube. Composite tubes with two different thicknesses (1 mm and 2 mm) have been considered to study the influence of polyurethane foam on the crushing performance. From the present study, it was found that the presence of polyurethane foam inside the composite tubes suppressed the circumferential delamination process and fibre fracturing; consequently, it reduced the specific energy absorption of composite tubes. Furthermore, the polyurethane foam attributed to a higher peak crush load for each composite tube. However, the presence of polyurethane foam inside the composite tubes significantly increased the stability of the crushing phenomena especially for the square and hexagonal cross-sectional composite tubes with 1 mm wall thickness. The results from this study are compared with our previous results for composite tubes without polyurethane foam [1].     

Thermal and impact study of PP/PET fibre composites compatibilized with Glycidyl Methacrylate and Maleic Anhydride

In this paper, two grafted copolymers, Glycidyl Methacrylate grafted polypropylene (PP) (PP-g-GMA) and Maleic Anhydride grafted PP (PP-g-MA) were used in PP reinforced with short poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) fibre composites. Transcrystallization (TC) of PP on PET fibres was investigated using a polarized optical microscope, which revealed no TC for either of the modified composites at the fibre–matrix interface. Heat deflection temperature (HDT) results of GMA modified composites revealed more enhancement than HDT of MA modified samples. The composite strength results showed enhancement for both modified composites up to 10 wt.%, and this growth was bigger for GMA modified composites. The morphological analysis of GMA modified PP/PET composites pointed out a marked improvement of fibre dispersion and interfacial adhesion as compared to non-compatibilized PP/PET composites. The results of impact strength showed about 43% enhancement for 15 wt.% PET fibre composites. It was found that at low fibre percentages, using either of the modifiers reduces the impact strength a little in comparison to impact strength of the unmodified samples. According to linear elastic fracture mechanics LEFM, impact fracture toughness (G_c) and critical stress intensity factor (K_c) were evaluated for these composites based on the fracture energy obtained from impact tests.     

Manufacturing techniques and property evaluations of conductive composite yarns coated with polypropylene and multi-walled carbon nanotubes

This study uses a melt extrusion method, a method for producing wires, to coat polyester (PET) yarns with polypropylene (PP) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). The resulting PP/MWCNTs-coated PET conductive yarns are tested for their tensile properties, processability, morphology, melting and crystallization behaviors, electrical conductivity, and applications. The test results indicate that tensile strength of the conductive yarns increases with an increase in the coiling speed that contributes to a more single-direction-orientated MWCNTs arrangement as well as a greater adhesion between PP/MWCNTs and PET yarns. 8 wt% MWCNTs results in an 18 °C higher crystallization temperature (T_c) of PP and an electrical conductivity of 0.8862 S/cm. The test results of this study have proven that this form of processing technology can prepare PP/MWCNTs-coated PET conductive yarns that have satisfactory tensile properties and electrical conductivity, and can be used in functional woven fabrics and knitted fabrics.     

Interfacial microstructure and strength of brazed copper/porous copper foam towards the effect of porous copper foam pore density and brazing holding time

The porous copper foam was sandwiched between two coppers plate and then brazed using copper-tin (9.7 %)-nickel (5.7 %)-phosphorus (7 %) filler foil. Brazing process was conducted to joint copper/porous copper foam by evaluating the effect of porous copper foam pore densities [pore per inch (PPI)] and brazing holding times. The brazed joint interface of copper and porous copper foam was characterised using Field emission scanning electron microscopy and Energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy for the microstructure and elemental composition analysis, respectively. X-ray diffraction analysis was carried out on the shear fractured surfaces of brazed copper and porous copper foam for phase determination. The results exhibited distinct phases of copper (Cu), copper phosphide (Cu₃P), nickel phosphide (Ni₃P), and copper compound with tin (6 : 5) (Cu₆Sn₅). The filler layer was formed as an island-shaped that consists of copper phosphide and nickel phosphide. Prolong brazing holding time causes a thinner filler layer in brazing seam. While the non-uniform thickness of the filler layer was observed at different pore densities of porous copper foam. The shear strength of brazed copper/porous copper foam 15 PPI with a 10 min brazing holding time yield a maximum shear strength of 2.9 MPa.     

用CONE/TG研究含淀粉膨胀阻燃聚丙烯体系的阻燃和烟释放

利用锥形量热仪（ＣＯＮＥ）在５０ｋＷ／ｍ＾２热辐照条件下,并配合ＴＧ和极限氧指数（ＬＯＩ）对含淀粉膨胀阻燃聚丙烯（ＰＰ）体系的阻燃和烟释放进行了研究,通过对获得的最大热释放速率（ｐｋ－ＨＲＲ）,总烟释放量（ＴＳＰ）、平均比消光面积（ａｖ－ＳＥＡ）及质量损失速度燃烧热（ａｖ－ＥＨＣ）、最大烟产生速率（ｐｋ－ＳＰＲ）、总烟释放量（ＴＳＰ）、平均比消光面积（ａｖ－ＳＥＡ）及质量损失速度（ＭＬＲ）等参数和     

Fire behaviour of reinforced concrete beams strengthened with CFRP laminates: Protection systems with insulation of the anchorage zones

This paper presents experimental and numerical investigations about the fire behaviour of reinforced concrete (RC) beams flexurally strengthened with carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates. The main objective was to assess the efficacy of different fire protection systems and to evaluate the viability of their use in floors of buildings. Fire resistance tests were conducted on an intermediate scale oven to investigate the behaviour under fire (ISO 834) of loaded CFRP-strengthened RC beams. The fire protection systems comprised calcium silicate boards and layers of vermiculite/perlite cement based mortar, with thicknesses of 25 mm and 40 mm, applied along the bottom soffit of the beams that was directly exposed to fire. In addition, the anchorage zones of the CFRP laminates were highly thermally insulated in order to evaluate the benefits of this particular constructive detail. Member deflection and temperatures throughout the midspan section were measured and recorded during the tests. When the strengthening system was left unprotected in the exposed length of the beam, the CFRP laminate anchorage debonded after about 23 min. When the above mentioned fire protection materials were applied in the exposed length of the beams, the strengthening system debonded after between 60–89 min (25 mm thickness) and 137-167 min (40 mm). Two-dimensional finite element thermal models of all beams tested were also developed in order to predict the evolution of temperatures in the materials. The calculated temperatures compared reasonably well with those measured in the tests.     

Effects of carbon nanotubes and its functionalization on the thermal and flammability properties of polypropylene/wood flour composites

In this article, pristine carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and hydroxylated CNTs (CNT-OH) were employed to enhance the thermal stability and flame retardancy of polypropylene (PP)/wood flour composites (WPC) compatibilzed by maleic anhydride-grafted polypropylene (PP-g-MA). Incorporating 10 wt% PP-g-MA only enhanced the mechanical and thermal properties to some extent, but did not improve the flame retardancy of WPC. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) showed that the thermal stability of WPC was further increased with the addition of CNTs or CNT-OH and the increase of their loading level. Cone calorimeter measurements suggested that CNTs and CNT-OH could effectively reduce the peak heat release rate (PHRR) of WPC, and the flame retardancy properties reached the optimum value when both of their loading was 1.0 wt%, for instance, a reduction in PHRR by 16.7% and 25% for CNTs and CNT-OH, respectively. In addition, CNT-OH conferred better flame retardancy on WPC relative to pristine CNTs due to the better interfacial adhesion with wood flour and PP matrix, which was evidenced by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations.     

The effect of span length of flexural testing on properties of short fiber reinforced composite

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of different span lengths of flexural testing on some properties of test specimens made of experimental short fiber reinforced composite resin (FC). Bar shaped specimens with different lengths were made from experimental FC composite with an average fiber length of 3 mm and particulate filler composite (PFC, control: Z250). The specimens (n = 8) were polymerized with a hand light-curing unit for 40 s and dry stored in a room temperature for 24 h before testing. Three-point flexural test for determination of ultimate flexural strength, toughness and flexural modulus of specimens was made with different span lengths (20, 15, 10, 7, 6, 5 mm) with a speed of 1.0 mm/min until fracture. By shortening the span length for specimens made of FC or PFC, the flexural modulus decreased (from ca. 11 to 4 GPa) and flexural toughness increased (from ca. 0.25 to 2.25 MPa). Reduction in flexural strength by shortening the span length was found with PFC (from 170 to 125 MPa) but not with FC, which showed reduction by span lengths from 20 to 7 mm and considerable increase of flexural strength by further shortening the span length from 7 to 5 mm. Shortening of span length of flexural testing showed linear reduction of the measured and calculated flexural properties of PFC and some properties of FC, but flexural strength values for FC were non-linearly related to the span length: the highest values were obtained with the longest and the shortest span lengths. In reporting the flexural values of composites, the span length—specimen dimension ratio, and the length of the reinforcement need to be taken into consideration.     

空气过滤用电纺聚偏氟乙烯-聚丙烯腈/熔喷聚丙烯无纺布复合材料的制备及过滤性能

为开发高效低阻的空气过滤材料,采用静电纺丝技术制备了聚偏氟乙烯（PVDF）-聚丙烯腈（PAN）复合纳米纤维,并与聚丙烯熔喷非织造布复合制得高效复合过滤材料,研究了PVDF与PAN的质量比对溶液性质、表面形貌、比表面积、透气性和过滤性能的影响。结果表明,当PVDF与PAN质量比为3:5时,其溶液可纺性最好,所得纤维直径均匀,约为0.59 μm;利用BET比表面积分析仪测试可得其比表面积约为PVDF与PAN质量比为2:1时的两倍;利用滤料测试仪对PVDF-PAN/熔喷聚丙烯（PP）无纺布复合滤材的过滤性能进行测试,结果表明,静电纺PVDF-PAN纳米纤维层可显著提高聚丙烯熔喷非织造布的过滤性能,PVDF-PAN/熔喷PP无纺布过滤效率可达99.95%,明显高于熔喷无纺布的过滤效率（65%）,过滤阻力为77 mmH₂O（1 mmH₂O=9.8 Pa）,过滤品质因子达0.0987,远高于熔喷无纺布的过滤品质因子0.0168,过滤效果得到显著提升。      

Structure property relation of hybrid biocomposites based on jute,viscose and polypropylene: The effect of the fibre content and the length on the fracture toughness and the fatigue properties

In the present study, the extent of jute and viscose fibre breakage during the extrusion process on the fracture toughness and the fatigue properties was investigated. The composite materials were manufactured using direct long fibre thermoplastic (D-LFT) extrusion, followed by compression moulding. The fracture toughness (K_IC) and the fracture energy (G_IC) of the PP–J30 composites were significantly improved (133% and 514%, respectively) with the addition of 10 wt% viscose fibres, indicating hindered crack propagation. The addition of viscose fibres resulted in three times higher fatigue life compared with that of the unmodified jute composites. Further, with the addition of (2 wt%) MAPP, the PP–J30–V10 resulted in a higher average viscose fibre length of 8.1 mm, and the fracture toughness and fracture energy increased from 9.1 to 10.0 MPa m^1/2 and 28.9 to 31.2 kJ/m², respectively. Similarly, the fatigue life increased 51% compared with the PP–J30–V10, thus demonstrating the increased work energy due to hindrance of the propagation of cracks.     

Fibre-reinforced glass/silicate composites: effect of fibrous reinforcement on intumescence behaviour of silicate matrices as a fire barrier application

This paper is the third in series on fire-resistant laminated glass composites containing an intumescent silicate interlayer and studies the effect of reinforcing fibres on the intumescent behaviour of the silicate matrices. Two silicate matrices with different silica/metal oxide ratios (SiO₂:Na₂O) were reinforced by polypropylene (PP), polyamide 66 (PA66), AR-glass (ARG) and stainless steel (ST) fibres, selected because of their alkali and UVA resistant properties. Thermal degradative behaviour of fibre/silicate mixtures having 5/95 and 10/100 mass ratios were examined to understand the effect of each fibre type on the intumescence of each silicate. Fibre reinforcements of the silicate layer were either as a nonwoven web or as a woven mesh. The intumescent properties of silicates were studied by heating the composites in a furnace at 450 °C for five minutes and measuring the intumescent layer thickness. The results showed that all fibre types in nonwoven web reinforcements had a negative effect while inorganic glass fibre in a woven mesh form had a negligible effect on the overall intumescence of silicate matrices. It was proposed that while fibre type was of minor importance, the fabric structure played an important role in inhibiting intumescence. Preferred reinforcement should preferably have open mesh-like characteristics.     

Rapid thermal processing of nano-crystalline indium tin oxide transparent conductive oxide coatings on glass by flame impingement technology

Indium tin oxide (ITO) is still the best suited material for transparent conductive oxides, when high transmission in the visible range, high infrared reflection or high electrical conductivity is needed. Current approaches on powder-based printable ITO coatings aim at minimum consumption of active coating and low processing costs. The paper describes how fast firing by flame impingement is used for effective sintering of ITO-coatings applied on glass. The present study correlates process parameters of fast firing by flame impingement with optoelectronic properties and changes in the microstructure of suspension derived nano-particulate films. With optimum process parameters the heat treated coatings had a sheet resistance below 0.5 kΩ/_□ combined with a transparency higher than 80%. To characterize the influence of the burner type on the process parameters and the coating functionality, two types of methane/oxygen burner were compared: a diffusion burner and a premixed burner.