Polygraph testing, psychological research, and public policy: An introductory note.

President Reagan's 1983 directive requiring polygraph testing in the investigation of security leaks led to a review of the scientific validity of such testing by the congressional Office of Technology Assessment. Meetings, literature reviews, and interviews with scientists, polygraphers, and government officials culminated in the Scientific Validity of Polygraph Testing (1983), a document which led to the introduction of legislation to restrict the scope and purpose of polygraph use. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The validity of polygraph testing: Scientific analysis and public controversy.

Reviews the literature on field and analog polygraph testing to aid Congressional consideration of efforts by the US Department of Defense to expand use of polygraph tests to large numbers of government employees with access to classified information. It is noted that the validity of polygraph testing has yet to be established. The present review suggests serious problems with both the theoretical rationale underlying use of polygraph tests and the quality of available evidence supporting the validity of such tests. The most serious problem in the development of policy-relevant conclusions about polygraph testing is viewed as the lack of theory to explain the results of testing. Although polygraph tests attempt to use anxiety as an indicator of lying, anxiety has many causal factors other than lying. The validity of control question analog studies is considered in relation to polygraph validity, and the effects of S characteristics, setting, and countermeasures on validity are discussed. (2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychology and the lie detector industry.

Indicates that although the lie detector industry is already a major area of applied psychology, few professional polygraphers have psychological training and few psychologists know enough about the industry to monitor its practices. The theory and methods of polygraphic interrogation are analyzed. It is argued that although it is unlikely that the polygraphic lie detector could have the claimed near-perfect validity, there should be greater and more skillful use of the polygraph in criminal investigation. Some of the limitations of the instrument in employee screening are discussed. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Screening for dementia with the memory impairment screen

OBJECTIVES: To validate a sensitive and specific screening test for AD and other dementias, assess its reliability and discriminative validity, and present normative data for its use in various applied settings. BACKGROUND: To improve discrimination in screening for AD and dementia, we developed the Memory Impairment Screen (MIS), a 4-minute, four-item, delayed free- and cued-recall test of memory impairment. The MIS uses controlled learning to ensure attention, induce specific semantic processing, and optimize encoding specificity to improve detection of dementia. METHODS: Equivalent forms of the MIS were given at the beginning and end of the testing session to assess alternate forms reliability. Discriminative validity was assessed in a criterion sample of 483 aged individuals, 50 of whom had dementia according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed., revised) criteria. RESULTS: The MIS had good alternate forms reliability, high construct validity for memory impairment, and good discriminative validity in terms of sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive value. We present normative data for use in settings with different base rates (prevalences) of AD and dementia. CONCLUSION: The MIS provides efficient, reliable, and valid screening for AD and other dementias.     

Leonard Saxe.

Presents an overview of the career and achievements of Leonard Saxe. For notable scientific contributions to psychology in the public interest. His research has both advanced human justice and led others to view national policies differently. Since 1980 his research on psychological interventions has provided guidance for the Congressional Office of Technology Assessment. His charge in each of four major studies was to conduct a scientific analysis of a national issue: (1) psychotherapy and its effectiveness; (2) evaluation of various treatments for alcohol abuse; (3) polygraph testing; and (4) the children's mental health system. The research findings have been used by Congress and other policy making groups, and each study has produced significant publications for the use of other scientists. Throughout his career Leonard Saxe has been an inspiring researcher and teacher, committed to advancing psychological knowledge and its application in the design of humane solutions to national problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Admissibility of polygraph tests: The application of scientific standards post- Daubert .

The U.S. Supreme Court's decision in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals (1993) modernized the long-standing Frye (1923) precedent and requires courts to make scientific judgments. Courts, however, are not well-equipped to parse scientific arguments. To illustrate the difficulty of applying Daubert , this article focuses on the controversy over admissibility of polygraph test evidence ("lie detectors"). Reliability and validity are discussed in relation to polygraph testing and the Daubert criteria. Although the validity of polygraph test results has been examined across many studies, none satisfy necessary methodological criteria and accuracy rates are unpredictable. This analysis points to the need for social scientists and courts to develop a mutually understood language to assess validity claims. Courts must have the ability to weight scientific evidence and, although they need not become amateur scientists, they must become sophisticated consumers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The validity of the lie detector: Two surveys of scientific opinion.

The widespread use of polygraph ("lie detector") tests has important social and individual consequences. Courts asked to admit polygraph findings into evidence, as well as individuals asked to submit to polygraph tests, have a natural interest in the acceptance by the relevant scientific community of the polygraph technique. For this reason, we conducted mail surveys to obtain the opinions of 2 groups of scientists from relevant disciplines: members of the Society for Psychophysiological Research and Fellows of the American Psychological Association's Division 1 (General Psychology). Survey return rates were high (91% and 74%, respectively). Most of the respondents believed that polygraphic lie detection is not theoretically sound, claims of high validity for these procedures cannot be sustained, the lie test can be beaten by easily learned countermeasures, and polygraph test results should not be admitted into evidence in courts of law. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Decision theory approach to the problem of polygraph interrogation.

To counter the prevailing unsystematic approach to the use of polygraph data, a generalized decision theory approach applicable to a variety of polygraph uses is discussed. Examples of applications of decision theoretic tools to the polygraph interrogation problem are then presented, and typical misuses of the polygraph as a basis for decisions are described. A computed example based on accumulated experimental validity data for 399 Ss was constructed to show how decision analyses should be used in polygraph interrogation. These analyses supplied first approximations for the limits within which a polygraph interrogation system might be used as a sole decision tool. Recommendations for polygraph users are also discussed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Identifying comorbid depression in elderly medical patients: Use of the Extracted Hamilton Depression Rating Scale.

The high prevalence and low rate of detection of comorbid depression in primary care is now well documented. Older adults with multiple medical problems represent a population at higher risk for underrecognition. The Extracted Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (XHDRS) was evaluated as a screening instrument for depression diagnosed according to Research Diagnostic Criteria in a sample of 150 geriatric medical and surgical inpatients. Scale reliability and validity were evaluated, and its sensitivity, specificity, and predictive power were calculated at multiple cutoff points. Results indicated good internal consistency, interrater reliability, concurrent validity, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. Additionally, use of the XHDRS offered greatly improved case identification when compared with use of conventional screening procedures. The XHDRS also showed improved specificity and positive predictive power when compared with several widely used self-report symptom scales. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reliability of the thermodynamic data obtained using the Gibbs-Duhem equation for ternary systems

The reliability of the thermodynamic data obtained by the Gibbs-Duhem equation for binary systems is analyzed, and the testing of this reliability is shown to be highly efficient. A similar testing technique is developed for a ternary system, and the application of this technique to a model system supports its validity and efficiency. The use of the developed technique for testing the data for the ternary Cd-Bi-Pb system of metallic melts confirms its validity and efficiency.     

Biographical constructs for predicting employee suitability.

The use of background investigation data in personnel screening is reviewed. Background investigations are routinely conducted on persons seeking positions of trust in law enforcement, the nuclear power industry, and military and civilian occupations requiring government-issued security clearances. The application of background investigation information in personnel screening differs in many important ways from biodata applications developed by psychologists. In this article, these differences are reviewed, and the construct and criterion-related validity of a survey-based measure are examined. This measure taps content domains typically explored in background investigations. Seven background factors were identified. The background scales showed acceptable reliability, informative interscale relationships, and useful levels of criterion-related validity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessment of psychotechnology.

Discusses the importance for the field of psychology of assessing the costs and benefits of new technologies before they are introduced to society on a large scale. Examples are cited (i.e., the polygraph and personality testing) of instances of public concern over invasion of privacy by such psychotechnology. A code of priorities for assessing psychotechnology is suggested as a supplement to the present American Psychological Association code of ethics. Such a code would require compliance with the following criteria: validity, intelligibility, reliability, social relevance, safety, accountability, obtaining informed consent, avoidance of deception, emphasis on individuality, availability, and distributability (assessible to all rather than to a privileged subgroup). (17 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of diazepam and methylphenidate on the electrodermal detection of guilty knowledge.

60 19–28 yr old male undergraduates were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups in an investigation of the effects of antianxiety (diazepam) and stimulant (methylphenidate) drugs on polygraphic interrogation. Ss assigned to the 3 guilty groups watched a videotape depicting the burglary of an apartment through the eyes of the thief. Each S was asked to imagine that it was he who was committing the crime and was given instructions to encourage his becoming absorbed in the videotape. Ss were given either diazepam, methylphenidate, or placebo capsules before a polygraph examination. Control Ss viewed a videotape depicting scenes from the interior of another apartment (no crime was committed) before being given a polygraph examination. Results show that drug status did not affect the validity of the polygraph examination. Ss who remembered more facts scored significantly more in the guilt direction. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The detection of deception.

Notes that the review by J. A. Podlesny and D. C. Raskin (see record 1978-07412-001) conveys the impression that the lie detector test is already highly accurate and that addition of other response variables might enhance its validity even further. It is argued here that this impression is erroneous and dangerously misleading. The polygraph (lie detector) test has an accuracy of 64–71% (against a chance expectancy of 50%) when the polygraph charts are scored blindly and are thus uninfluenced by clinical impressions of the S or of the evidence against him. The lie test is biased against truthful Ss, at least half of whom will be erroneously classified as deceptive. These conclusions, based on 2 recent studies of lie test validity in real-life applications, corroborate an earlier critical analysis of the assumptions on which the lie detector is based. Since, in the field, most Ss tend to "fail" the lie test whether they are truthful or deceptive, the method more often detects lying than it does truthful responding. However, it seems probable that deceptive Ss could be taught to artificially augment their polygraph responses to the so-called control questions and thus avoid being scored as deceptive. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Integrity tests: Facts and unresolved issues.

Describes 2 independent reports, recently completed by the American Psychological Association (APA) and the US Congress Office of Technology Assessment, that examined many scientific and measurement issues concerning integrity testing (e.g., validity, criterion relevance). Background data are offered on a variety of tests collected by a survey of test publishers, providing a view of the industry's scope (e.g., test audience, user screening, score reporting) not available elsewhere. In the light of APA's Ethical Principles for Psychologists and Code of Conduct (APA, 1992), unresolved concerns are addressed that have a wide range of implications for the profession of psychology, the testing industry, and public policy (e.g., cutting scores, user screening and training, and test marketing practices). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Frenchay Aphasia Screening Test: validity and comparability

The Frenchay Aphasia Screening Test1 is a reliable test which can be used by non-specialists to discriminate between aphasia and normal language. Preliminary studies have shown good test-retest reliability, and the test itself is quick and simple to use. The present investigation examines the validity of the test by comparing the results of this test with those on more structured, detailed and frequently used assessments of aphasia -the Minnesota Test for Differential Diagnosis of Aphasia (MTDDA) and general performance in communication as reflected by the Functional Communication Profile. The results demonstrate a positive correlation between the tests, and this allows confidence in the use of this test by non-specialists as a screening instrument.     

Statistical versus clinical lie detection.

Argues that studies conducted to date have tended to ignore the single most important variable of polygraph validity: the human judge. The present study focused on clinicians' interpretations of polygraph protocols and showed that clinicians performed less accurately than statistical analyses. Ss included 30 undergraduates administered a polygraph test by 4 examiner-trainees and 30 experienced polygraph interpreters. Statistics outperformed human judges because they used information optimally and applied decision rules consistently, while clinicians tended to add error variance to their protocol interpretations. Unfortunately, current empirical evidence suggests that the prospects for improving clinicians' consistencies are not promising; the possibility of applying statistical methods to interpreting polygraph data is recommended. It is suggested that psychologists become more active researchers in this area, a domain that is properly within their scientific purview. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

International experiences with the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale--a review of validation data and clinical results

More than 200 published studies from most medical settings worldwide have reported experiences with the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) which was specifically developed by Zigmond and Snaith for use with physically ill patients. Although introduced in 1983, there is still no comprehensive documentation of its psychometric properties. The present review summarizes available data on reliability and validity and gives an overview of clinical studies conducted with this instrument and their most important findings. The HADS gives clinically meaningful results as a psychological screening tool, in clinical group comparisons and in correlational studies with several aspects of disease and quality of life. It is sensitive to changes both during the course of diseases and in response to psychotherapeutic and psychopharmacological intervention. Finally, HADS scores predict psychosocial and possibly also physical outcome.     

Validity of the Positive Control polygraph test using the field practice model.

Introduced a model of field practice that provides examinee choice and commitment in a laboratory setting to assess the validity of polygraph testing. 38 female undergraduates were tested with 1 repetition of a 4-item Positive Control Test (PCT), 2 repetitions of a 4-item Control Question Test (CQT), and 1 repetition of a 3-item Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT). The PCT, a new and previously unvalidated test format, obtained average accuracy of 73% for the examiner and 78% for a blind judge of the polygraph record. Similar average accuracy was obtained with the other 2 tests, but the PCT was less biased against detection of truth than the CQT and less biased against detection of deception than the GKT. Further results indicate that incentive to avoid detection may increase detectability of the deceptive, that a combination of the PCT and the CQT may be more accurate than either alone, and that number of repetitions of questions may be more important than chart minutes in increasing detectability with the CQT. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Handbook of measurement and evaluation in rehabilitation (second edition).

Reviews the book, Handbook of measurement and evaluation in rehabilitation (second edition) by Brian Bolton (1987). This book is an excellent introduction to assessment issues and techniques for rehabilitation professionals. An impressive roster of experts in the fields of psychometrics and rehabilitation contributed to this second edition. There are three main sections to the book: a brief introduction to principles of measurement (scores and norms, reliability and validity), discussions of five major types of instruments used with rehabilitation populations (such as intelligence testing and personality testing), and an extended review of assessment applications, ranging from process areas such as career development to specific populations such as mentally retarded individuals. A main strength of the book is its consideration of measurement issues in broad terms; a number of chapters could be lifted and used almost unchanged in other fields in which intelligence testing or career development is relevant. Also, the volume is well referenced and does not shrink from dealing straightforwardly with complex issues. There are also some significant omissions in the volume. Perhaps the most serious of these is the scant attention given to the rise of the computer in rehabilitation assessment. On balance, the handbook seems an evident front-runner for use in training rehabilitation professionals about the basics of assessment. Bolton's book provides a sturdy foundation for learning about assessment, filled as it is with important concepts and a sense of the field's history. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)