Improvement effects of vibration on cutting force in rotary ultrasonic machining of BK7 glass

Rotary ultrasonic machining (RUM) exhibits a high potential for a significant reduction in the cutting force, which directly associates with tool wear, machining accuracy, machining temperature, and surface integrity. However, the improvement mechanisms of the ultrasonic vibration on the cutting force are still not fully recognized, restricting the currently optimization methods for further reducing the cutting force occurred during the RUM process. In this research, by incorporating the kinematics principles of the abrasive, the evolution features of the material strain rate in the loading phase were first discussed with respect to the indentation mechanics theory. Taking these features into account, the RUM scratching tests were carried out on the polished specimen surfaces under various process parameters to capture the integrated damage patterns evoked in the high strain rate stage. Following, the comparative indentation tests were respectively conducted on the RUM scratches and the gentle polished surfaces. The indentation-induced damage structures and the load–displacement curves were characterized and assessed to investigate the improvement mechanisms of the superimposed ultrasonic on the cutting force in formal RUM process. It was found that superimposing an ultrasonic vibration led to the incipient cracks nucleated in the abrasive loading phase, and their propagations would increase the material removal rate (MMR) obtained in formal RUM process. Furthermore, the incipient cracks provided a shielding effect to the indentation force, which was a dominant factor in diminishing the cutting force of the diamond tool. The nucleation of the incipient cracks resulted in more energy dissipation after the abrasives penetrating into the hard substrate of the material, which would lead to a higher residual stress on final RUM surface. In addition, a failure pattern (plastic deformation or brittle fracture) evolution model involved in abrasive loading phase was developed with respect to the strain rate effects of the material.     

陶瓷刀具断续车削淬硬钢失效形态研究

采用Al_2O_3/Ti(C,N)陶瓷刀具进行淬硬钢的断续车削正交试验,对不同切削速度下刀具的失效形态进行了对比。结果表明,低速时,刀具的失效形态主要是崩刃和前刀面剥落,疲劳破损影响较小。随着切削速度的增加,疲劳破损对刀具的影响逐渐增大。高速时,疲劳裂纹扩展引起的破损成为刀具主要失效形式。在不同切削速度下,刀具内部的应力水平不同,导致裂纹扩展速率及裂纹方向有所差异,疲劳特征则表现出不同形式。低速时疲劳特征表现为疲劳条带,而高速时的疲劳特征通常为疲劳弧线。     

Improving Cycle Time in Sculptured Surface Machining Through Force Modeling

In this paper, an enhanced mathematical model is presented for the prediction of cutting force system in ball end milling of sculptured surfaces. This force model is also used as the basis for off-line feed rate scheduling along the tool path in order to decrease the cycle time in sculptured surface machining. As an alternative for setting a constant feed rate all along the tool path in rough machining of sculptured surfaces, resultant cutting forces are aimed to be kept under a pre-set threshold value along the tool path by off-line scheduled piecewise variable feed rates. In this paper, it is shown that machining time, depending on complexity of sculptured surfaces, can be decreased significantly by scheduling feed rate along the tool path. The model is tested under various cutting conditions and some of the results are also presented and discussed in the paper.     

复杂薄壁零件数控加工变形误差控制补偿技术研究

高性能航空发动机整体叶盘、大小叶片转子、离心叶轮、叶片等零件广泛采用钛合金薄壁结构。加工过程中的切削力、残余应力将产生零件加工变形及加工误差。本文重点讨论了薄壁零件加工过程中的切削力建模和工件加工表层残余应力的分布规律,提出了对叶盘零件加工变形误差的补偿方案。通过建立精确的切削力、残余应力预报模型,对切削加工过程进行力学仿真,优化切削参数、补偿刀位轨迹,进而实现薄壁结构叶盘零件的精密数控加工。     

Cutting force estimation in sculptured surface milling

Cutting force milling models developed up to now are mostly used for planar milling using end-mills. Only a reduced number of models applying ball-end mills have been developed. Furthermore these models usually only consider horizontal surface machining, even though the main application of ball-end mills is sculptured surface machining. This article proposes a model that is able to estimate the cutting forces in inclined surfaces machined both up-milling and down-milling. For this purpose a semi-mechanistic model has been developed that calculates the cutting forces based on a set of coefficients which depend on the material, the tool, the cutting conditions, the machining direction and the slope of the surface.A coordinate transformation has been included in order to consider the slope milling case with different cutting directions.The model has been tested on two materials, an aluminum alloy Al7075-T6 and a 52 HRC tool steel AISI H13. Validation tests have been carried out on inclined planes using different slopes and different machining directions.The results provide errors below 10% in most of the cases and both the value and shape of the predicted forces adjust the measured cutting force.     

Fatigue failure of coated carbide tool and its influence on cutting performance in face milling SKD11 hardened steel

Failure patterns of coated carbide tool were investigated by high-speed face milling of the hardened steel SKD11. Tool failure surface morphology, cutting force and machined surface roughness were also analyzed to reveal the failure mechanisms. The results indicated that the dominant failure pattern of coated carbide tool was breakage. The primary mechanism of tool breakage was fatigue fracture. Under different cutting speeds, the distinctive morphologies of fatigue fracture were presented on the failure surfaces. At low cutting speeds, many fatigue sources were observed on the rake face. The distance between fatigue sources and tool nose was approximately two times of the depth of cut. With the increase of cutting speed, the fatigue striations and riven patterns were observed at the fracture surface. In addition, the fatigue steps and crack deflection were found under high cutting speeds. The main fracture mode was intergranular fracture at lower cutting speeds. However, it was transgranular fracture at higher cutting speeds. Furthermore, the irregular fracture surfaces at low cutting speeds and at high cutting speeds contribute to a larger cutting force increment compared with the medium cutting speeds. The increment of surface roughness in the initial and severe wear stages was lower than that in the steady wear stage, while the deviation of surface roughness was relatively large.     

通用立铣刀真实切削轨迹下五轴铣削力计算

针对五轴铣削中刀具位姿变化和刀具类型差异所导致的铣削力预测难的问题，提出通用立铣刀五轴铣削力计算方法。基于通用立铣刀结构形式，建立通用立铣刀几何模型；综合考虑刀齿真实运动轨迹和刀具姿态变化，构建刀具瞬时切屑厚度模型；将刀具沿轴线方向等分成若干切削刃微元，并根据线性切削力假设建立刀具微元铣削力；将微元铣削力从刀具坐标系转换至工件坐标系下，并沿刀具轴向铣削深度进行积分，获得通用立铣刀的五轴铣削力模型；最后，在混联五轴数控加工实验平台上开展了铣削力测试。实测结果表明:所提铣削力计算方法正确有效，可作为后续五轴铣削工艺参数优选的理论依据。     

TWEM, a method based on cutting forces—monitoring tool wear in face milling

One of the most important objectives in manufacturing is the intelligent machining system. To come to such a solution, the tool wear has to be determined on-line during the cutting process on unmanned machining systems. This contribution discusses the results experimentally obtained in face milling with a new rotating dynamometer. The paper introduces the concept of tool wear indicators which can be determined by simple analysis of the feature parameters of cutting force signals. The disturbance of the cutting force signals obtained by using the rotating dynamometer can be solved by applying tool wear indicators such as Normalized Cutting Force indicator (NCF) and Torque-Force Distance indicator (TFD). The Method for Tool Wear Estimation—TWEM is proposed.     

涡轮叶片切削参数研究与仿真

为解决涡轮叶片可选加工参数较多、加工质量与效率难以保证的难题,提出一种涡轮叶片的五轴加工工艺。利用解析分析的方法建立切削力理论模型,对比验证切削力经验公式的模型精度。结合工件受力变形有限元模型,选取优化后的切削参数,并利用可视化软件实现对叶片无偏摆点铣与侧铣程序的编制与仿真。可视化仿真结果表明：该加工工艺及参数下,可获得加工精度较高的叶片表面;点铣法加工精度较高,通用性强,与侧铣法相比效率较低。铣削试验结果表明：仿真表面结果与试验表面在变化规律上吻合良好,证明了所提工艺与参数的有效性,提升了涡轮叶片的制造精度与效率。     

Dynamic controlled milling process for bone machining

Optimal control of the machining process in orthopedic surgery can not only increase productivity but also ensure safety during tool usage. The authors have developed a technology for a force control system. The system has two modes of operation: the “air-cutting mode” and the “force control mode.” In the air-cutting mode, tool feed is scheduled by predicting the air and bone-cutting zones from the CAD/CAM system. In the force control mode, the software monitors the cutting force and the cutting temperature, and it controls the feed override according to the difference between the real and the desired cutting force. The software is installed on a robot controller, and its effectiveness is evaluated with a urethane bone.     

超声振动辅助切削SiCp/Al复合材料的加工机理及试验

切削加工过程中材料损伤形式对加工表面质量会产生较大影响,现有仿真分析难以模拟真实颗粒失效行为,通过建立二维微观多相有限元模型能够深入了解材料损伤与表面质量的关系。基于常规切削（Conventional cutting,CC）与超声振动辅助切削（Ultrasonic vibration-assisted cutting,UVAC）两种加工方式,通过有限元仿真软件 Abaqus 对 20%SiCp / Al 复合材料的切削过程进行仿真模拟,阐释加工过程中刀具与工件的相互作用机理,并在同一参数下验证有限元仿真的准确性。通过设计单因素试验,对比两种加工方式及不同加工参数对切削力和表面粗糙度的影响规律,得出最佳加工参数组合,并对最佳加工参数下表面形貌进行分析。模拟和试验结果表明,SiC 颗粒断裂、颗粒耕犁、颗粒拔出以及 Al 基体撕裂是影响 SiCp / Al 复合材料加工质量的主要原因,刀具与颗粒不同的相对作用位置会产生不同的损伤形式。与常规切削相比,施加超声振动后可以有效抑制颗粒失效和基体损伤,使加工中的平均切削力（主切削力）降低 33%,工件已加工表面粗糙度值最大减小量为 531 nm,显著提高了表面质量。所建立的二维微观多相有限元模型,能够有效模拟铝基复合材料的加工缺陷和裂纹损伤问题, 对提高难加工材料的高质量表面制备有重要借鉴意义。     

Analytical models for high performance milling. Part I: Cutting forces, structural deformations and tolerance integrity

Milling is one of the most common manufacturing processes in industry. Despite recent advances in machining technology, productivity in milling is usually reduced due to the process limitations such as high cutting forces and stability. If milling conditions are not selected properly, the process may result in violations of machine limitations and part quality, or reduced productivity. The usual practice in machining operations is to use experience-based selection of cutting parameters which may not yield optimum conditions. In this two-part paper, milling force, part and tool deflection, form error and stability models are presented. These methods can be used to check the process constraints as well as optimal selection of the cutting conditions for high performance milling. The use of the models in optimizing the process variables such as feed, depth of cut and spindle speed are demonstrated by simulations and experiments.     

Feasibility study of in-process compensation of deformations in flexible milling

During the machining of thin-walled parts, deformation can occur resulting in dimensional errors. These dimensional errors cause a variation on cutting forces. From the actual measured cutting forces and the estimated forces resultant from rigid machining, it is possible to determine the value of this deformation. Based on this, an on-line system for compensating workpiece errors, has been developed. The system is based on correcting the relative position of the tool-workpiece during machining by means of a piezoelectric actuator. The objective is achieved in real time to compensate for the part deformations from the measurement of the cutting forces, without the programming of the tool path trajectories in the machine tool being affected.     

Feedrate optimization for freeform milling considering constraints from the feed drive system and process mechanics

This paper presents a new and comprehensive strategy for planning minimum cycle time tool trajectories subject to both machining process related constraints, and also limitations of the feed drive control system. The machining process is considered by computing the workpiece-tool engagement along the toolpath and setting local feed limits to maintain a specified resultant cutting force. The drive constraints are considered by limiting the velocity, acceleration, and jerk magnitudes commanded to each actuator. Feed profiling is realized with uninterrupted acceleration transitions, capable of spanning multiple toolpath segments. Effectiveness of the proposed strategy is demonstrated in sculptured surface machining experiments.     

Effect of near-surface residual stress and microstructure modification from machining on the fatigue endurance of a tool steel

This study concerns the effect of machining on the fatigue life of an EN X155CrMoV12 tool steel (SAE J438b), with regard to the generation of near-surface residual stress and microstructural modification of the machined surface. Two possible methods for machining tool steels were compared: electro-discharge machining (EDM), a high energy density process, and milling, a more conventional cutting process. Particular attention was given to characterization of the surface roughness, microstructure, and residual stress, using a combination of microstructural analysis, crack observation, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), x-ray diffraction (XRD), and chemical composition changes by energy-dispersive x-ray. A decrease of around 35% in the fatigue limit was observed for the EDM samples, compared with the milled samples. This was attributed to a tensile residual stress state after EDM, combined with significant phase transformation and hydrogen embrittlement. The milled surfaces showed no microstructural transformation or surface cracking and contained compressive residual stresses, all of which contributed to an improved fatigue resistance.     

Analysis of orthogonal finish machining using tungsten carbide and diamond tools of different heat transfer coefficients

An orthogonal cutting model for finish machining, using diamond and tungsten carbide tools which have different coeffficients of thermal conductivity, was simulated and analyzed. It was assumed that the tool had a minute amount of tool flank wear. The distribution of strain rate and stress within the machined workpiece and the determination of the cutting force were obtained after simulation. The generation and distribution of temperature and stress within the chip through cutting of the workpiece were also acquired. In addition, the temperature of the tool, the workpiece and the chip during finish machining by the two different tools, that show the effects of the different friction coefficients of the diamond tool and the tungsten carbide tool on cutting, were compared. Finally, the cutting forces predicted by the model for orthogonal finish machining were compared with those obtained by experiment, and it appears that the present orthogonal finish machining model is reasonable.     

加工复合地板耐磨层时PCD刀具切削参数的研究

切削参数是影响PCD刀具切削性能的主要因素。本文采用Element Six公司的SYNDITE CTH025型聚晶金刚石(PCD)复合片制成强化复合地板用切削刀具，进行了一系列加工强化复合地板耐磨层的切削实验。通过实验研究了切削参数对刀具切削力的影响，得出了切削力随切削参数的变化规律，指出随着切削深度的增加，PCD刀具切削力增加；进给速度的增加使切削力增加；切削速度的增加将会使切削力降低。同时，分析了切削参数对刀具磨损、工件加工质量以及加工效率的影响。最后，本文总结了采用PCD刀具加工强化复合地板时加工参数的选择原则，认为当n=6000r／min、f=10000mm／min能够实现较高的加工效率，并保证工件的加工质量。     

Milling error prediction and compensation in machining of low-rigidity parts

The paper reports on a new integrated methodology for modelling and prediction of surface errors caused by deflection during machining of low-rigidity components. The proposed approach is based on identifying and modelling key processing characteristics that influence part deflection, predicting the workpiece deflection through an adaptive flexible theoretical force-FEA deflection model and providing an input for downstream decision making on error compensation. A new analytical flexible force model suitable for static machining error prediction of low-rigidity components is proposed. The model is based on an extended perfect plastic layer model integrated with a FE model for prediction of part deflection. At each computational step, the flexible force is calculated by taking into account the changes of the immersion angles of the engaged teeth. The material removal process at any infinitesimal segment of the milling cutter teeth is considered as oblique cutting, for which the cutting force is calculated using an orthogonal–oblique transformation. This study aims to increase the understanding of the causes of poor geometric accuracy by considering the impact of the machining forces on the deflection of thin-wall structures. The reported work is a part of an ongoing research for developing an adaptive machining planning environment for surface error modelling and prediction and selection of process and tool path parameters for rapid machining of complex low-rigidity high-accuracy parts.     

A new versatile in-process monitoring system for milling

Tool condition monitoring (TCM) systems can improve productivity and ensure workpiece quality, yet, there is a lack of reliable TCM solutions for small-batch or one-off manufacturing of industrial parts. TCM methods which include the characteristics of the cut seem to be particularly suitable for these demanding applications. In the first section of this paper, three process-based indicators have been retrieved from literature dealing with TCM. They are analysed using a cutting force model and experiments are carried out in industrial conditions. Specific transient cuttings encountered during the machining of the test part reveal the indicators to be unreliable. Consequently, in the second section, a versatile in-process monitoring method is suggested. Based on experiments carried out under a range of different cutting conditions, an adequate indicator is proposed: the relative radial eccentricity of the cutters is estimated at each instant and characterizes the tool state. It is then compared with the previous tool state in order to detect cutter breakage or chipping. Lastly, the new approach is shown to be reliable when implemented during the machining of the test part.     

High-speed five-axis milling of hardened tool steel

This paper investigates critical issues related to high-speed five-axis milling of hardened D2 tool steel (hardness HRc 63). A forging die cavity was designed to represent the typical features in dies and molds and to simulate several effects resulting from complex tool path generation. Cutting tool materials used were coated carbide for the roughing and semi-finishing processes and polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN) for the finishing process. The effects of complex tool paths on several critical machining issues such as chip morphology, cutting forces, tool wear mechanisms, tool life and surface integrity were also investigated. The main tool failure mode was chipping due to the machine tool dynamics. A five-axis analytical force model that includes the cutter location (CL) data file for computing the chip load has been developed. The effect of instantaneous tilt angle variation on the forces was also included. Verification of the force model has been performed and adopted as a basis for explaining the difficulties involved with high-speed five-axis milling of D2 tool steel.