Occurrence and genotypes of Campylobacter in broiler flocks, other farm animals, and the environment during several rearing periods on selected poultry farms

On 15 Swiss poultry farms, broiler flocks, other farm animals, and the environment were examined during consecutive rearing periods to investigate the occurrence and genetic diversity of Campylobacter. Of the 5154 collected samples, 311 (6%) from 14 farms were Campylobacter positive by culture. Amongst the positive samples, 228 tested positive for Campylobacter jejuni and 92 for Campylobacter coli. Positive samples originated from broilers, the broiler houses, cattle, pigs, bantams, laying hens, a horse, and a mouse. Feed, litter, flies, and the supply air to the broiler house tested negative. By flagellin gene typing (fla-RFLP) and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), 917 Campylobacter isolates were genotyped. Additionally, amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis was performed on 15 assorted strains. On eight farms, matching genotypes were isolated from broiler flocks and other farm animals: Certain genotypes from cattle (farms H, K, L, and M), pigs (farms D and P), or laying hens (farm L) were subsequently found in the broiler flocks, whereas other genotypes initially present in the broiler flocks turned up in cattle (farms A, D, and O). These results emphasize the importance of other farm animals on poultry farms for broiler flock colonization. Indications of persistent contamination of the broiler house were evident on four farms (C, D, I, and L) where matching genotypes were detected in consecutive broiler flocks, but not concurrently in other samples. By fla-RFLP, PFGE, and confirmed by AFLP, some genotypes proofed to be identical across different farms.     

Diversity of flaA genotypes among Campylobacter jejuni isolated from six niche-market poultry species at farm and processing

PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism of the flagellin (flaA) gene in Campylobacter jejuni was used to determine the relationships of isolates collected at the farm and throughout processing for six niche-market poultry species. This study focused on two specialty chicken products, poussin and free range, and four other specialty products, squab, duck, guinea fowl, and quail. Cloacal and carcass samples were collected from three flocks from each of the six niche species. Three processing plants in California participated in a 2-year investigation. A total of 773 isolates from farm, posttransport, and the processing plants were genotyped, yielding a total of 72 distinct flaA profiles for the six commodities. Genetic diversity of C. jejuni at the farm was greatest for ducks with up to 12 distinct flaA types in two flocks and least for squab 1 flaA type between two farms. For two of the guinea fowl flocks, one free-range flock, two squab flocks, and all three poussin flocks, the flaA types recovered at the prepackage station matched those from the farm. Cross-contamination of poultry carcasses was supported by the observation of flaA types during processing that were not present at the farm level. New C. jejuni strains were detected after transport in ducks, guinea fowl, and free-range chickens. Postpicker, postevisceration, and prewash sampling points in the processing plant yield novel isolates. Duck and free-range chickens were the only species for which strains recovered within the processing plant were also found on the final product. Isolates recovered from squab had 56 to 93% similarity based on the flaA types defined by PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism profiles. The 26 duck isolates had genetic similarities that ranged from 20 to 90%. Guinea fowl and free-range chickens each had 40 to 65% similarity between isolates. Poussin isolates were 33 to 55% similar to each other, and quail isolates were 46 to 100% similar. Our results continue to emphasize the need to clean processing equipment and posttransport crates in order to decrease cross contamination between flocks. This study also determined that several strains of C. jejuni had unique flaA types that could only be recovered in their host species.     

Campylobacter colonization of sibling turkey flocks reared under different management conditions

Uncertainty exists concerning the key factors contributing to Campylobacter colonization of poultry, especially the possible role of vertical transmission from breeder hens to young birds. A longitudinal study of Campylobacter colonization was performed in two sibling pairs of turkey flocks (four flocks total). Each pair of sibling flocks shared breeder hen populations and was obtained from the same hatchery. One flock of each pair was grown on a commercial farm, and the other was grown in an instructional demonstration unit (Teaching Animal Unit [TAU]). Flocks were located within a 60-mi (96.8-km) radius. The time of placement, feed formulations, stocking density, and general husbandry were the same for both flocks, and each flock was processed at a commercial processing plant following standard feed withdrawal and transport protocols. Both flocks grown on the commercial farms became colonized with Campylobacter between weeks 2 and 3 and remained colonized until processing. Between 80 and 90% of isolates were Campylobacter coli, and the remainder were Campylobacter jejuni. In contrast, neither C. coli nor C. jejuni were isolated from either of the TAU flocks at any time during the production cycle. None of the fla types of Campylobacter from the breeders that provided poults to one of the commercial flocks matched those from the progeny. These results failed to provide evidence for vertical transmission and indicate that this type of transmission either did not occur or was not sufficient to render the TAU turkey flocks Campylobacter positive. Management practices such as proper litter maintenance, controlled traffic between the TAU farm and other turkey flocks, and other less well-defined aspects of turkey production were likely responsible for the absence of Campylobacter in the TAU flocks before harvest.     

A survey of food-borne pathogens in free-range poultry farms

A survey of the occurrence of Campylobacter, Salmonella, Listeria and Shiga toxin-producing E. coli was performed on 60 flocks of free-range chicken from 34 farms in the Basque Country (Northern Spain). Campylobacter was the most prevalent of the four pathogens, isolated in 70.6% of the farms, followed by L. monocytogenes (26.5%), and Salmonella (2.9%). No E. coli O157 or other STEC were isolated. In total 48 flocks from 26 farms were positive for at least one pathogen: 31 of them for a single pathogen (64.6%), and 17 for more than one species (35.4%). C. coli was more prevalent than C. jejuni (15 vs. 13 farms), and both species of Campylobacter were found in 3 farms. L. monocytogenes isolates were identified as serotype 4b complex, and the only Salmonella isolated was serovar Enteritidis. flaA PCR-RFLP performed on 91 Campylobacter isolates (36 C. jejuni and 55 C. coli) yielded 26 patterns, with higher diversity among the C. jejuni isolates. More than one pattern was found in 11 farms, and in 8 of them several patterns were found within the same flock. The findings of the present study suggest that the free-range rearing conditions described herein might have an advantageous effect on diminishing Salmonella but not on Campylobacter or L. monocytogenes flock contamination.     

Contamination of meat with Campylobacter jejuni in Saitama, Japan.

To determine the source of food contamination with Campylobacter jejuni, we investigated retail meat, a chicken processing plant and a broiler farm. C. jejuni was found in domestic retailed poultry (45.8%) and imported poultry (3.7%), but not in beef or pork. In the poultry processing plant, there is significant contamination with C. jejuni in chicken carcasses, equipment and workers' hands. This contamination increases during the defeathering and evisceration processes. RAPD analysis shows that contamination with C. jejuni is of intestinal origin. In a broiler farm, C. jejuni was first isolated from a faecal sample of broiler chicken after the 20th day of age. Two weeks later, all birds in this farm became C. jejuni positive. RAPD analysis indicated that C. jejuni spread rapidly from one broiler flock to the other flocks on the farm.     

Prevalence and characterization of Campylobacter jejuni isolated from pasture flock poultry

The growing interest in organic and natural foods warrants a greater need for information on the food safety of these products. In this study, samples were taken from 2 pasture flock farms (N = 178; feed, water, drag swabs, and insect traps), pasture flock retail carcasses (N = 48) and 1 pasture flock processing facility (N = 16) over a period of 8 mo. A total of 105 Campylobacter isolates were obtained from 53 (30%), 36 (75%), and 16 (100%) samples from the farms, retail carcasses, and processing facility, respectively. Of the 105 isolates collected, 65 were C. jejuni, 31 were C. coli, and 9 were other Campylobacter spp. Using PCR, the C. jejuni isolates were further analyzed for virulence genes involved in colonization and survival (flaA, flaC, cadF, dnaJ, racR, cbrR), invasion (virB11, ciaB, pldA), protection against harsh conditions (sodB, htrA, clpA), toxin production (cdtA, cdtB, cdtC), siderophore transport (ceuE), and ganglioside mimicry (wlaN). In addition, the short variable region of the flaA locus (flaA SVR) was sequenced to determine the genetic diversity of the C. jejuni isolates. The flaA SVR diversity indices increased along the farm to carcass continuum. PCR-based analysis indicated a low prevalence of 5 genes involved in colonization (dnaJ, ciaB, pldA, racR, virB11). The results of this survey indicate that the prevalence of Campylobacter on organic retail carcasses is similar to prevalence reports of Campylobacter on conventional retail carcasses. However, the genetic diversity of the flaA SVR genotypes increased along the farm to carcass continuum that contrasted with conventional poultry studies. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Campylobacter jejuni is a leading cause of foodborne illness with poultry and poultry products being leading sources of infection. Free-range and pasture flock chickens are becoming more popular; however, there is an inherent biosecurity risk that can increase the prevalence of foodborne pathogens in these flocks. This study aimed to determine sources and characterize C. jejuni isolated from pasture flocks.     

Use of MIDI-fatty acid methyl ester analysis to monitor the transmission of Campylobacter during commercial poultry processing

The presence of Campylobacter spp. on broiler carcasses and in scald water taken from a commercial poultry processing facility was monitored on a monthly basis from January through June. Campylobacter agar, Blaser, was used to enumerate Campylobacter in water samples from a multiple-tank scalder; on prescalded, picked, eviscerated, and chilled carcasses; and on processed carcasses stored at 4 degrees C for 7 or 14 days. The MIDI Sherlock microbial identification system was used to identify Campylobacter-like isolates based on the fatty acid methyl ester profile of the bacteria. The dendrogram program of the Sherlock microbial identification system was used to compare the fatty acid methyl ester profiles of the bacteria and determine the degree of relatedness between the isolates. Findings indicated that no Campylobacter were recovered from carcasses or scald tank water samples collected in January or February, but the pathogen was recovered from samples collected in March, April, May, and June. Processing generally produced a significant (P < 0.05) decrease in the number of Campylobacter recovered from broiler carcasses, and the number of Campylobacter recovered from refrigerated carcasses generally decreased during storage. Significantly (P < 0.05) fewer Campylobacter were recovered from the final tank of the multiple-tank scald system than from the first tank. MIDI similarity index values ranged from 0.104 to 0.928 based on MIDI-fatty acid methyl ester analysis of Campylobacterjejuni and Campylobacter coli isolates. Dendrograms of the fatty acid methyl ester profile of the isolates indicated that poultry flocks may introduce several strains of C. jejuni and C. coli into processing plants. Different populations of the pathogen may be carried into the processing plant by successive broiler flocks, and the same Campylobacter strain may be recovered from different poultry processing operations. However, Campylobacter apparently is unable to colonize equipment in the processing facility and contaminate broilers from flocks processed at later dates in the facility.     

Potential competitive exclusion bacteria from poultry inhibitory to Campylobacter jejuni and Salmonella

The objective of this study was to isolate from chickens potential competitive exclusion bacteria (CE) that are inhibitory to Campylobacter jejuni or Salmonella, or to both, for subsequent development of a defined CE product for use in poultry. Adult chickens from family farms, commercial farms, and broiler chicken research centers were sampled to identify and select C. jejuni-free donor chickens. A challenge treatment, which included administering perorally 106 CFU C. jejuni per chicken and determining undetectable cecal shedding of campylobacters at 4 weeks, was important for identifying the best CE donor chickens. Screening of bacterial colonies obtained from nine donor chickens by using selective and nonselective media yielded 636 isolates inhibitory to six C. jejuni strains in vitro, with 194 isolates being strongly inhibitory. Of the 194 isolates, 145 were from ceca, and 117 were facultative anaerobic bacteria. One hundred forty-three isolates were inhibitory to six strains of Salmonella (including five different serotypes) in vitro. Of these, 41 were strongly inhibitory to all C. jejuni and Salmonella strains evaluated, and most were Lactobacillus salivarius. A direct overlay method, which involved directly applying soft agar on plates with discrete colonies from mucus scrapings of gastrointestinal tracts, was more effective in isolating CE than was the frequently practiced isolation method of picking and transferring discrete colonies and then overlaying them with soft agar. The best approach for obtaining bacteria highly inhibitory to Salmonella and C. jejuni from chickens was to isolate bacteria from ceca under anaerobic conditions. Free-range chickens from family farms were better donors of potential CE strongly inhibitory to both Salmonella and Campylobacter than were chickens from commercial farms and broiler chicken research centers.     

Prevalence and comparison of genetic profiles of Campylobacter strains isolated from poultry and sporadic cases of campylobacteriosis in humans.

Between July 1998 and June 1999, 93 lots of broiler chickens distributed on 57 farms were sampled in two abattoirs of the province of Quebec (Canada). A total of 2,325 samples of cecal material were analyzed to determine the prevalence of campylobacters. Biotyping and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) were done on 20% of the Campylobacter isolates to study the distribution within poultry production. Macrorestriction profiles were compared with profiles of 24 Campylobacter strains isolated from sporadic cases of human diarrheic patients in order to evaluate genetic relationships. Approximately 40% of the broiler chickens in 60% of the lots and 67% of the farms were colonized. Biotypes I and II of Campylobacter jejuni were the most prevalent biotypes in poultry and human isolates. The PFGE dendograms revealed a high genetic diversity among poultry isolates, with 49 different genotypes from the 56 positive lots. More than 75% of these lots were colonized by a unique genotype. All positive lots raised simultaneously on the same farm had common genotype(s). Different genotypes were isolated from lots raised at different grow-out periods on a farm. In some cases, identical genotypes were found at different grow-out periods on a farm and also from different farms. Macrorestriction profiles showed that approximately 20% of human Campylobacter isolates were genetically related to genotypes found in poultry. This genetic relationship and the high prevalence of C. jejuni biotypes I and II in poultry indicated that Campylobacter in broiler production of the province of Quebec could be a potential source of hazard for public health.     

Resistance patterns of Campylobacter spp. strains isolated from poultry carcasses in a big Swiss poultry slaughterhouse

The aim of this study was to determine resistance patterns of strains of Campylobacter spp. isolated from poultry carcasses in one of the two big Swiss poultry slaughterhouses. A variety of antibiotics with clinical relevance in human and/or in veterinary medicine was tested. In addition, the results of the disc diffusion method, E-test and microdilution broth methods were compared. Of the 195 Campylobacter jejuni strains isolated from 195 poultry carcasses from 21 flocks, 134 strains were susceptible in vitro to all tested antibiotics. Sixty-one strains (31.3%, from eight flocks) showed resistance. Forty-one strains were resistant to a single antibiotic-34 to streptomycin, 6 to ampicillin and 1 to ciprofloxacin. Eighteen strains (from two flocks) showed combined resistance to erythromycin and streptomycin, two strains to ciprofloxacin and streptomycin. None of the isolates was resistant to tetracycline. The data of this first study in Switzerland show a favourable resistance situation for C. jejuni strains against erythromycin, tetracycline and ciprofloxacin. The disc diffusion method was found to be a reliable and easy tool for monitoring the prevalence of resistant C. jejuni strains. For surveillance of changes in the susceptibility concentration levels to antimicrobial agents, however, a MIC method should be used. Further investigations along the whole poultry production chain (farm, slaughterhouse and retail levels) are now necessary in order to confirm the resistance situation.     

Genetic diversity of Arcobacter and Campylobacter on broiler carcasses during processing

Broiler carcasses (n=325) were sampled at three sites along the processing line (prescalding, prechilling, and postchilling) in a commercial poultry processing plant during five plant visits from August to October 2004. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) was used to determine the genomic fingerprints of Camospylobacter coli (n=27), Campylobacter jejuni (n=188), Arcobacter butzleri (n=138), Arcobacter cryaerophilus 1A (n=4), and A. cryaerophilus 1B (n=31) with the restriction enzymes SmaI and KpnI for Campylobacter and Arcobacter, respectively. Campylobacter species were subtyped by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention PulseNet 24-h standardized protocol for C. jejuni. A modification of this protocol with a different restriction endonuclease (KpnI) and different electrophoresis running conditions produced the best separation of restriction fragment patterns for Arcobacter species. Both unique and common PFGE types of Arcobacter and Campylobacter strains were identified. A total of 32.8% (57 of 174) of the Arcobacter isolates had unique PFGE profiles, whereas only 2.3% (5 of 215) of the Campylobacter isolates belonged to this category. The remaining Arcobacter strains were distributed among 25 common PFGE types; only eight common Campylobacter PFGE types were observed. Cluster analysis showed no associations among the common PFGE types for either genus. Each of the eight common Campylobacter types consisted entirely of isolates from one sampling day, whereas more than half of the common Arcobacter types contained isolates from different sampling days. Our results demonstrate far greater genetic diversity for Arcobacter than for Campylobacter and suggest that the Campylobacter types are specific to individual flocks of birds processed on each sampling day.     

Prevalence and characterization of Salmonella infantis isolates originating from different points of the broiler chicken-human food chain in Hungary

During the 10-month study period Salmonella contamination of broiler houses and the flocks reared in three farms (A, B and C), the slaughter houses where the flocks were slaughtered, as well as the carcass and retail raw meat products originating from them was investigated. In the broiler farm A five consecutive flocks, in the B and C farms one flock was sampled. Environmental samples were taken prior to the introductions. Environmental, drinking water, feed and faecal samples were collected regularly using standard methods. Before and during processing of the flocks, environmental and carcass samples were taken at the abattoirs. Salmonella contamination of the carcass, retail meat, as well as stool samples of farm and abattoir workers and from human illnesses registered in the same period and region were also examined. Isolation, sero-, phage- and antibiotic resistance typing, class 1 integron and plasmid profiling of the strains were performed; their genetic relationship was assessed by PFGE. Although the broiler house and the faecal samples of the 5 flocks of the farm A were negative for Salmonella, S. infantis was isolated from 20-100% of the abattoir carcass samples. The retail raw meat samples were 0-100% S. infantis positive. The environmental samples of farm B were Salmonella negative, but the examined flock was contaminated: S. infantis was identified from 43% of the faecal samples. This serotype was identified in 100% of the carcass and retail raw meat samples. From environmental samples taken before the arrival of the 1-day-old chicks in the broiler house C, S. infantis was cultured. S. infantis prevalence in the faecal samples was 35% and all the carcass and retail raw meat samples were S. infantis contaminated. Altogether 164 S. infantis strains were isolated out of which 145 were further characterized. The vast majority (142/145) of the strains belonged to phage types 217 and 213. All but one were characterized by the nalidixic acid-streptomycin-sulphonamide-tetracycline resistances, had an 885 bp class 1 integron and a large plasmid of >168 kb in size. The strains showed >/=88.7% genetic similarity. The results obtained shows that the same multi-drug resistant S. infantis clone was spread from the examined broiler farms contaminating the slaughter and the retail meat and appeared in the human illnesses of the examined region that was earlier detected as the dominant clone characteristic of the broiler and human population of the whole country.     

Colonizing capability of Campylobacter jejuni genotypes from low-prevalence avian species in broiler chickens

Genetic variations in Campylobacter jejuni or host factors result in low prevalence rates among nonchicken poultry species. The objective of this study was to determine the colonizing potential, in broiler chickens, of C. jejuni that was recovered from low-prevalence avian species. Twenty-day-old Campylobacter-negative broiler chicks were inoculated by oral gavage with genetically different primary isolates of C. jejuni recovered from squab, duck, or chicken. Serial sampling and microbiologic testing of ceca were used to determine the level of colonization and the prevalence of positive chickens. All isolates were recovered from chickens by 10 days postinoculation. The C. jejuni strains recovered from challenged birds were genetically identical to the inoculated strains. By 10 days postinoculation, treatment groups inoculated with duck or control chicken isolates were 100% positive. The level of colonization by the squab isolate on day 2 postinoculation was significantly less than the duck or chicken isolates and had not colonized all birds by day 10 postinoculation.     

Evaluation of logistic processing to reduce cross-contamination of commercial broiler carcasses with Campylobacter spp

Cross-contamination of broiler carcasses with Campylobacter is a large problem in food production. Here, we investigated whether the contamination of broilers carcasses from Campylobacter-negative flocks can be avoided by logistic scheduling during processing. For this purpose, fecal samples were collected from several commercial broiler flocks and enumerated for Campylobacter spp. Based on enumeration results, flocks were categorized as Campylobacter negative or Campylobacter positive. The schedule of processing included the testing of Campylobacter-positive flocks before or after the testing of Campylobacter-negative flocks. During processing, flocks were also sampled for Campylobacter spp. before and after chilling. Campylobacter strains were identified with multiplex PCR and analyzed for relatedness with pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Our results show that Campylobacter-negative flocks were indeed contaminated with Campylobacter strains originating from previously processed Campylobacter-positive flocks. Campylobacter isolates collected from carcasses originating from different farms processed on the same day showed similar pulsed-field gel electrophoresis patterns, confirming cross-contamination. These findings suggest that a simple logistic processing schedule can preserve the Campylobacter-negative status of broiler carcasses and result in products with enhanced food safety.     

Distribution and characterization of Campylobacter spp. from Russian poultry

The distribution of Campylobacter spp. on 13 poultry farms (broiler chicken, quail, pheasant, peacock, and turkey) from eight regions (Vladimir, Vologda, Voronezh, Kaluga, Liptsk, Moscow, Orenburg, and Orel) in Russia was surveyed. Intestinal materials were plated onto Campylobacter-selective medium and plates were incubated microaerobically at 42 degrees C for 24 or 48 h. Identification was based on colonial morphology, microscopic examination, and biochemical tests; latex agglutination assays were used for confirmation. In total, 116 isolates were derived from 370 samples. Isolation rates were similar, regardless of whether the birds were from small or large broiler production farms. Susceptibility of 48 representative (from these production sources) strains of Campylobacter spp. to 38 antimicrobial compounds was determined by disk diffusion assays. All strains tested were sensitive to amikacin, gentamycin, sisomycin, chloramphenicol, imipenem, oleandomycin, erythromycin, azitromycin, and ampicillin. The strains were also sensitive to 100 microg/disk of carbenicillin, fluoroquinolones, and to nitrofurans. Fluoroquinolone sensitivity was most notable and may be related to its limited application in poultry production within Russia. Hippurate and ribosomal RNA gene primers were developed and used to distinguish Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli and to provide a measure of strain discrimination. The combination of PCR analysis and randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) typing were conducted for selected isolates. The various poultry species and the different locations yielded Campylobacter isolates with discrete randomly amplified polymorphic DNA patterns. The distribution and substantial diversity of Campylobacter spp. isolates appears similar to that previously reported in other countries.     

Prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in poultry and poultry meat in Germany

Of 509 samples from poultry flocks, 209 isolates (41.1%) were Campylobacter positive. The number of positive cases in broiler carcasses was 45.9%. Of 52 pheasants investigated, 25.9% were Campylobacter positive. Campylobacter jejuni was isolated from 86 (42.0%) poultry flock samples, 47 (43%) broiler samples and 15 (28%) wild pheasant samples. C. coli was found at a rate of 1.2% in poultry flocks, 13% in broilers and 21% in pheasants.     

Establishment of a microbiological profile for an air-chilling poultry operation in the United States

The microbiological profile of an air-chilling poultry process was investigated from the farm through the processing plant. Within a 1-year period, nine broiler flocks from four different farm sources were studied. Numbers of total aerobes, coliforms, psychrotrophic organisms, E. coli Biotype I (generic E. coli), Salmonella spp., and Campylobacter spp. were determined for multiple sampling sites on the farm as well as in the processing plant. Farm samples were collected the day before the chickens were slaughtered at the plant. The same flock was sampled at the plant on the day of slaughter. Sites located before evisceration (BE), after evisceration (AE), and after chilling (AC) were sampled. Results indicated a positive correlation between contamination of ceca with Salmonella on the farm and the presence Salmonella in carcass samples from the plant for all three types of sampling sites. The in-plant trend for total aerobes, coliforms, and generic E. coli revealed a significant decrease from counts obtained before evisceration to those obtained for the (AC) final product when flock variations were taken into account. The average coliform counts were 3.91, 3.27, and 2.59 log10 CFU/ml of rinse for BE, AE, and AC samples, respectively. Generic E. coli counts were 3.74, 3.08, and 2.20 log10 CFU/ml of rinse for BE, AE, and AC samples, respectively. No reductions in numbers of Campylobacter or Salmonella were observed during processing, which suggests that practical intervention strategies for lowering pathogen levels are critical on a multilevel basis at the farm and in the plant.     

An investigation of sources of Campylobacter in a poultry production and packing operation in Barbados

Chicken meat is frequently contaminated with Campylobacter jejuni and is thought to be the major source of organisms causing human Campylobacter enteritis. Genotypic similarities between Campylobacter isolates from chicken meat at retail outlets and patients with gastroenteritis in Barbados suggested that it is a vehicle for infection of humans on the island and prompted this investigation of transmission of Campylobacter in a local poultry operation. Campylobacter testing was conducted at the hatchery, on the broiler farm and in the processing plant for two consecutive production cycles. The genetic relatedness of Campylobacter isolates was determined by RAPD typing with primer OPA 11. Hatchery samples and week-old chicks were negative for Campylobacter. Flocks became colonized as early as three weeks after introduction to the farm. Ten distinct RAPD genotypes were identified among isolates. Some genotypes were similar and may be of clonal origin. There was no evidence of vertical transmission of Campylobacter. The results suggest that the broiler flock was infected from more than one source in the farm environment.     

Campylobacter prevalence in lactating dairy cows in the United States

The objective of the present study was to determine the prevalence of intestinal Campylobacter in lactating dairy cows from various regions of the United States. Participating commercial dairy farms were chosen at random and were part of a national survey to determine E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella prevalence in dairy cows. Farms had no previous history of Campylobacter problems. Fecal samples were collected rectally from 720 cows on farms in the northeast (four farms), in the desert southwest (three farms), and in the Pacific west (two farms). A minimum of 60 fecal samples per visit were collected from each farm. Thirty isolates were analyzed using the RiboPrinter Microbial Characterization System to obtain ribosomal RNA patterns. Twenty isolates were tentatively identified as Campylobacter jejuni, two as Campylobacter coli, three as Campylobacter spp., and five as unknown. Individual single-visit farm prevalence ranged from 0 to 10%. The disk diffusion method, employing 11 antibiotics, was used to test the antibiotic sensitivities of 27 of the isolates. Eight isolates were resistant to two or more antibiotics, 13 isolates were resistant to one antibiotic, and 6 were totally susceptible. Under the conditions of this study, the authors conclude that Campylobacter prevalence in lactating dairy cows in the United States is low, there is no difference in prevalence on the basis of geographical location, the predominant species is C. jejuni, and that the majority of these isolates are sensitive to antibiotics.     

Recovery of Campylobacter jejuni from surfaces of poultry slaughterhouses after cleaning and disinfection procedures: analysis of a potential source of carcass contamination

Campylobacters are a primary cause of human bacterial enteritis worldwide. They are usually considered susceptible to the disinfectant molecules used in the food industry. The purpose of this study was to see if campylobacters could survive cleaning and disinfection in poultry slaughterhouses and whether the strains recovered could contaminate carcasses during processing. Samples obtained from the environment before and after cleaning and disinfection (transport crates, processing equipment surfaces, scald tank water) and from birds (fresh droppings, neck skins) were collected during 7 investigations in 4 different slaughterhouses. Out of 41 samples collected, 30 Campylobacter jejuni strains were recovered from the surfaces of processing equipment before cleaning and disinfection procedures in three slaughterhouses and 9 C. jejuni out of 51 samples collected were found after cleaning. The study was then focused on one slaughterhouse to trace passage of the pathogen on poultry carcasses. The antimicrobial resistance phenotypes (P) (minimum inhibitory concentration, MIC) of the C. jejuni isolates collected in this slaughterhouse were determined. Nine phenotypes could be distinguished. Three of these were of interest as they were found in isolates recovered after cleaning and disinfection procedures. The genotypes (G) were determined by polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) of isolates with one of the three phenotypes of interest. Clusters constructed by combining the phenotype and genotyping observations (PG type) were compared between isolates obtained after cleaning and disinfection, and isolates from droppings, neck skin and transport crate samples of slaughtered poultry flocks. Only one PG type of strain was recovered from surfaces after cleaning and disinfection and from neck skin samples but was also recovered from transport crates. Our findings indicate that C. jejuni is able to survive overnight on food processing equipment surfaces, after cleaning and disinfection procedures, and that these strains may contaminate carcasses during the slaughter process. These results add to our understanding of poultry carcass contamination and highlight the need to develop ways of reducing the risk of human infection with Campylobacter through the consumption of poultry products.