Elastohydrodynamic lubrication of line contacts

Elastohydrodynamic film thickness measurements for rolling line contact under fully flooded and starved conditions have been made using optical interferometry. From the results it was found that the film shape at the end of the roller becomes more parallel as lubricant starvation increases.

Two main regions of starvation have been studied, namely progressive and catastrophic regions of lubricant starvation. Furthermore, it was found that the severity of conditions within the hertzian contact increases rapidly as m decreases and dry contact conditions are approached. It has been possible to express the dimensionless inlet distance for catastrophic and progressive lubricant starvation conditions respectively as

It has been concluded that the experimental dimensionless central and minimum film thicknesses under starvation conditions can be written respectively as      

Free boundary of lubricant film in ferrofluid journal bearings

The growing interest in ferrofluid bearings is caused by their excellent self-sealing ability. The understanding of behaviour of ferrofluid film boundary adjacent to ambient air is crucial for the proper design of the sealing unit of ferrofluid bearings. This paper is the first attempt to predict the shape of a ferrofluid free boundary in the presence of a static load and magnetic field. Analysis involves simultaneous integration of the Reynolds equation and the free boundary equation using perturbation technique with respect to shaft eccentricity. Magnetic field is shown to flatten ferrofluid free boundaries as well as to reduce cavitation region; both effects diminishing lubricant leakage.     

Magnetic fluids in sealing and lubrication – a state of the art review

The paper is a review of the properties and functions of magnetic fluids and their potential use in tribological applications, such as seals and bearings. They offer new possibilities for achieving low friction, low wear, and no leak- age. Magnetic fluids or ferrofluids consist of magnetic particles suspended in a carrier fluid and a coating on the particles. The coating prevents the agglomeration of the particles through magnetic and molecular attraction by keeping the distance between them sufficiently large. The magnetic fluids have the basic properties of liquids and they act like ferromagnetic materials in the presence of an external magnetic field. Shaft sealing is the most promising potential application for ferrofluids. Magnetic seals have zero-leakage and low friction, they are non-stick and they have high-performance properties. Lubrication is another important application of ferrofluids. The advantage over conventional lubricants is the possibility of keeping the lubricant exactly and only where it is needed. They provide the possibility of increasing the life of components. Furthermore, because they do not contaminate, ferrofluids are also used as lubricants in clean environments.     

分子动力学模拟巴氏合金界面磁性液体润滑行为

磁性液体因其顺磁可控的流变特性,可满足极端工况对滑动轴承润滑油膜稳定性不断提高的要求,在轴承润滑方面具有良好的应用前景。为探究磁性液体微观润滑机制,采用分子动力学模拟方法构建和优化巴氏合金界面磁性液体润滑的微观模型,并根据实际工况进行限制性剪切模拟,研究温度和剪切速度对PAO6基磁性液体在巴氏合金界面润滑行为的影响;通过分析滑动过程中相对浓度分布、温度分布、速度分布、均方位移和界面吸附能等参数的变化,从分子层面揭示磁性液体微观润滑的作用机制。结果表明：PAO6基磁性液体具有良好的扩散性和散热性,可以粘附在巴氏合金摩擦界面起到很好的承载和减磨作用;在高温和高剪切速度下,磁性液体润滑膜仍呈现出良好的稳定性,磁性颗粒具有良好的扩散能力。研究结果有助于完善纳米薄膜润滑理论,对磁性液体的工程应用具有现实指导意义。     

The Frictional Properties of Newtonian Fluids in Rolling–Sliding soft-EHL Contact

A combined experimental and numerical study has been carried out to explore friction in rolling–sliding, soft-EHL contact. Experimental work has employed corn syrup solutions of different concentrations in water to provide a range of lubricant viscosities and has measured Couette friction in mixed rolling–sliding conditions over a wide range of entrainment speeds. A Stribeck curve has been generated, ranging from the boundary to full film, isoviscous-elastic lubrication regime. In the latter regime, friction coefficient is approximately proportional to the product of (entrainment speed × viscosity) raised to the power 0.55. Numerical solution of the isoviscous-elastic lubrication regime has been used to derive predictive equations for both Couette and Poiseuille friction in circular, soft-EHL contacts. This shows that in soft-EHL the Poiseuille or “rolling” friction can have magnitude comparable to the Couette friction. The calculated Poiseuille friction coefficient can be predicted from non-dimensional load and speed using a simple power law expression similar to that used for film thickness. However accurate prediction of calculated Couette friction coefficient requires a two-term power law expression. Comparison of experimental and numerical Couette friction coefficients shows quite good agreement between the two, with a similar non-dimensional speed dependence, but slightly lower predicted than measured values.     

多孔UHMWPE软骨材料润滑性能的Stribeck研究

采用T-L法制备出仿生多孔UHMWPE材料,测试了其与水的接触角;在不同的摩擦学条件下测试了普通UHMWPE和多孔UHMWPE试样与不锈钢接触时的润滑性能,并利用Stribeck润滑曲线分析了其润滑状态。结果表明:多孔结构能提高UHMWPE的亲水性能;水润滑条件下,普通UHMWPE表面只能形成边界润滑区域;仿生多孔UHM-WPE具有的多孔结构使得在高速低条件下能形成混合润滑区域,降低材料的摩擦磨损行为;牛血清润滑下普通UHM-WPE的润滑情况变化不大,多孔UHMWPE试样的Stribeck曲线谷底较宽,说明比水润滑条件下具有更好的润滑性能。     

Ferrofluid Lubrication of Compliant Polymeric Contacts: Effect of Non-homogeneous Magnetic Fields

This paper demonstrates a new route to control friction in the isoviscous elastic lubrication regime between compliant point contacts. For this aim, the superposition of non-homogeneous magnetic fields in ferrofluid lubricated contacts is proposed. Under appropriate conditions, a friction reduction is observed by simply displacing the magnetic field distribution in the flow direction towards the inlet of the contact. This friction reduction is associated with a lower Couette friction contribution as a result of the fact that surfaces become more separated under field. Experiments and simulations are in good qualitative agreement.     

Experimental Support for the Dynamic Concentration Theory of Forming an Oil Reservoir at the Inlet of the Roll Bite by Measuring the Onset Speed of Starvation as a Function of Oil Concentration and Droplet Size

The dynamic concentration theory describes a mechanism of how an oil reservoir forms at the inlet of the roll bite when an emulsion is used as the lubricant. This theory assumes that oil droplets larger than the thickness of the lubricant film in the deformation zone become trapped when they come into contact by both the surface of the sheet and the surface of the work roll. As the droplets move toward the deformation zone, water is left behind or squeezed out by the flattening of the oil droplets. At some point, the surfaces of the trapped oil droplets come into contact with each other, resulting in an inversion where oil becomes the continuous phase. The dynamic concentration theory predicts that the height of the meniscus where this inversion occurs is a function of the percent oil concentration and the diameter of the oil droplets. To test the dynamic concentration theory, the onset speed of starvation on a laboratory rolling mill was determined by measuring the speed in which load increases relative to the load measured for the same process but where the lubricant film is fully flooded. Both the concentration of oil and the size of the monodisperse oil droplets were varied to change the height of the meniscus and consequently the onset speed of starvation. Solid support for the dynamic concentration theory was obtained when starvation occurred at the same speed for emulsions with different oil droplet sizes in which their concentrations were specifically adjusted so that their meniscus heights theoretically were the same. Finally, an unexpected consequence of the dynamic concentration theory was that the thickness of a starved lubricant film is independent of rolling speed, but this is only true at high speeds.     

Dynamic analysis of a rigid rotor supported by three-pad hydrostatic squeeze film damper lubricated with ferrofluid

This work describes an analytical study on the dynamic behaviour of a three-pad hydrostatic journal bearing lubricated with ferrofluids. Each pad is fed with an external pressure through a capillary restrictor-type hydraulic resistance. Ferrofluid or magnetic fluid is a colloidal dispersion of magnetic nano-particles in a carrier liquid. In this study, a non-linear method was performed using Jenkins model in order to investigate the effect of ferrofluids lubrication on the vibrations amplitude and the transmitted forces of hydrostatic squeeze film dampers. The results presented in this paper showed that the ferrofluid lubrication is useful in controlling the bearing vibrations and transmitted forces. The results illustrated in this work are expected to be quite useful to the bearing designers.     

Effect of Starvation on Traction and Film Thickness in Thermo-EHL Line Contacts with Shear-Thinning Lubricants

The effect of starvation on traction and film thickness behavior in thermo-EHL rolling/sliding line contacts has been studied using full EHL simulations. The simulations employed the free volume equation for viscosity–pressure–temperature relationship and Carreau viscosity model to describe the shear-thinning behavior of the EHL lubricant. The simulation results were used to develop equations for estimating the factors by which the traction coefficient increases and film thickness decreases as a function of the degree of starvation. For the situations involving inadequate lubricant supply at the inlet, these factors can be used to correct the traction coefficient and central film thickness predicted with the assumption of fully flooded condition.     

Experimental investigations on the contact fatigue life under starved conditions

Over the last decades, severisation of the operating conditions in lubricated contact has led to the decrease of film thicknesses and to a new failure mode. For example, starvation occurs in high-speed or grease-lubricated bearings and in mechanisms operating with a limited lubricant supply. The film thickness under starved conditions depends on the amount of lubricant in the contact inlet and can be calculated or measured. But in many industrial applications, the lubricant supply is unknown. This paper presents the effect of starvation on the fatigue life of machine elements. The first part links the operating conditions, the lubricant supply and the traction coefficient. The second part presents fatigue life measurements for different lubricant flow rates.     

Different Magnetic Models in the Design of Hydrodynamic Journal Bearings Lubricated with Non-Newtonian Ferrofluid

This work is concerned with theoretical study of hydrodynamic journal bearings lubricated with ferrofluids exhibiting non-Newtonian behavior. Based on the momentum and continuity equations for ferrofluid under an applied magnetic field, a modified Reynolds equation has been obtained. Assuming linear behavior for the magnetic material of the ferrofluid, the magnetic force was calculated. The Reynolds equation has been derived to be able to apply to any magnetic field distribution model. Using different magnetic field models, the equation has been solved numerically by the finite-difference technique with appropriate iterative technique and pressure distributions have been obtained. The boundary shape of the load-carrying active regions (positive-pressure regions) and cavitation regions (zero-pressure regions) could be then determined. The solution renders the bearing performance characteristics, namely: load-carrying capacity, attitude angle of the journal center, frictional force at the journal surface, friction coefficient and bearing side leakage. The results indicated that the flow-behavior index has a large effect on the bearing performance. When the bearing operates at high eccentricity ratios, the increase of flow-behavior index gives higher load capacity, lower attitude angle, higher frictional force, lower friction coefficient and higher side leakage. At low eccentricity ratios where the magnetic effects are significant, the effect of the flow-behavior index depends mainly on the magnetic field distribution model used.     

A Generalised Asperity-Based Friction Model

Despite considerable research effort, the use of physics-based modelling to predict frictional behaviour is still a debatable question in modern tribological research. This article presents a dry-friction model, based on physical phenomena such as adhesion, elastic–plastic contact and deformation. This contribution offers a means to simulate all kinds of frictional behaviour that is observed in experimental research. The contact of two bodies through their surfaces is transformed into the contact of a body that is provided with asperities and containing material and geometrical information of both of the mating surfaces, and a counter profile, holding solely geometrical information. The local adhesion between the asperity tips and the counter profile, together with the elastic–plastic behaviour of the asperities themselves, form the basis for this model. The simulation results show qualitatively good agreement with experimental study. Friction and contact phenomena such as normal creep, increasing static coefficient of friction with increasing dwell time, pre-sliding hysteresis with nonlocal memory, Stribeck and viscous effect, frictional lag, stick–slip and dynamical oscillations are revealed by this model. Furthermore, future improvement and refinement of the model is possible (and ongoing) so as to incorporate lubrication and asperity wear.     

Grafting Lubricant Molecular Chains to the Carbon Overcoat

It was conceived and demonstrated that irradiation of magnetic disks coated with PFPE (perfluoropolyether) lubricants terminated with a carboxylic group at one terminus with long-UV (254 nm) would lead to grafting, via a bona fide C–C chemical bond, of genuine PFPE molecular chains to the carbon overcoat all at one terminus with all the remaining chain segments being free to sway. The water contact angle of disks coated with PFPE lubricants terminated with end-groups having hydroxyl unit(s) (e.g., Z-dol and Z-tetraol) decreases gradually, after the initial contact of the droplet, reaching an asymptote in 20–30 s. The gradual temporal change is accounted for by shifting of the equilibrium disposition of hydroxyl units of the lubricant molecules from that determined by the interaction with the surface of the carbon overcoat to that determined by the interaction with surfaces of both the carbon overcoat and the liquid droplet. The water contact angle of disks prepared by the presently conceived photo-grafting method is high (>110 degrees) and shows no temporal change. In a preliminary spin-stand drag test, disks with PFPE chains photo-grafted by this method and also the heads (for the read/write process) with similar photo-grafted PFPE chains exhibited extraordinary durability.     

Experimental Evidence of Micro-EHL Lubrication in Rough Soft Contacts

An experimental investigation of the lubricated steady-sliding contact for elastically soft solids is reported. We show that the anisotropic character of the surface roughness has a strong influence in determining the transition from boundary lubrication, where the normal load is fully supported by the asperity–asperity interactions, to the hydrodynamic regime, where a thin fluid layer completely separates solid surfaces from direct contact. In particular, tests have been carried out using a ball-on-flat test configuration to measure the friction coefficient at the contact between a smooth steel ball and a rough PDMS as a function of the sliding speed. The most noteworthy result is that the presence of roughness anisotropy strongly modifies the classical shape of the Stribeck curve as a consequence of local micro-EHL conditions which occur at the contact interface.     

Investigation of Flying-Height Stability of Thermal Fly-Height Control Sliders in Lubricant or Solid Contact with Roughness

When the magnetic spacing in hard disk drives is reduced to sub-3 nm, contact between the slider and disk becomes inevitable. Stability analysis is used in this study to investigate the head–disk interface (HDI) stability of thermal fly-height control (TFC) sliders in light contact with the disk lubricant or solid roughness. We implement an improved DMT model with sub-boundary lubrication into the CML air bearing program and analyze the stability of equilibrium states of a TFC slider under different thermal actuations. It is found that stability is lost when the slider penetrates deeper into the lubricant layer, due to a fast growth in the adhesion force, and it is restored when the solid roughness contact develops. In addition, the critical point for the onset of this instability and the range of this instability region is found to vary with lubricant thickness and protrusion surface steepness, while keeping the air bearing design the same.     

Friction and wear of copper samples in the steady friction state

The effect of sliding velocity and load on the friction and wear of Cu-steel pairs was studied. Elasto-hydrodynamic (EHL), mixed (ML) and boundary lubrication (BL) regions were analyzed using the Stribeck curve. The lubrication number of Schipper, Z, was used in the analysis of the Stribeck curve. Steady friction states were observed in the mixed EHL and BL regions, however two types of the ML region are revealed. The first type is the stable ML range. The second one is the range of unstable friction and wear when a decrease of the lubricant film leads to abrupt change of all controlled parameters. It was found that a transition to the unstable ML region occurs within a narrow range of Z parameter. Wear modes in the lubrication regions were studied. Deformation hardening in the lubricant regimes is discussed.     

界面滑移条件下点接触Stribeck曲线的实验研究

采用高黏度聚异丁烯润滑油,在光学弹流实验机上考察球-盘接触纯滑条件下的摩擦因数随卷吸速度和载荷的变化。结果表明,随着卷吸速度的增加,球-盘接触副进入弹流润滑并向流体动压润滑转变的过程中,摩擦因数并不像传统的Stribeck曲线一样,随着卷吸速度的增加而单调增加,而是呈现先上升、后下降、再上升的趋势,其中摩擦因数下降时的起始速度大致为凹陷出现的速度,摩擦因数再上升时的速度大致是润滑进入动压润滑的速度。初步论证界面滑移为产生上述波动的主要原因。     

The Effect of Grain Size on Stribeck Curve and Microstructure of Copper Under Friction in the Steady Friction State

In the present work, the effect of grain size on the friction and wear behavior of a copper (Cu) samples under different lubricant conditions was studied. The structural evolution of Cu subsurface layers under friction in different lubricant conditions was considered. All friction tests were conducted under laboratory conditions using a block-on-ring rig. The effects of sliding velocity and load on the friction coefficient and wear rate of Cu with different grain size (1, 30, and 60 μm) were analyzed. The Cu samples with the average grain size of 1 μm were obtained due to severe plastic deformation (SPD) by equal channel angular pressing (ECAP). The Stribeck curves for Cu samples with different virgin grain sizes were considered. Elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) and boundary lubrication (BL) regions were mainly studied in the present work. Similar Stribeck curves were found out for Cu samples with different virgin grain size. A load of the transition from the EHL to BL region was increased with a decrease of the grain size. While the friction coefficients were similar in the EHL and BL regions for the samples with different grain sizes, the wear rate was increased remarkably with an increase the virgin grain size. Flow localization during friction in the BL region led to formation of the vortex structure in subsurface layers. Based on the dependence of the microhardness upon the depth, the degree of hardening (H) was evaluated. A correlation between the coefficient of wear and the deformation hardening of Cu samples with different virgin grain sizes was revealed. In order to take into account the effect of the grain size and to predict the Stribeck curve, a parameter, K, as the ratio between hardness of tested and annealed samples, was incorporated into the lubricant number. The theoretical values of the Stribeck curve calculated for preliminary deformed Cu samples (d = 1 μm) and annealed samples (d = 60 μm) were well coincided with the experimental results.     

基于铁磁流体的液压驱动方法研究

在机器人液压驱动控制中,传统机械阀结构复杂,体积较大,故基于铁磁流体的超顺磁性质,在机器人液压驱动的基础上提出了新型液压驱动控制方法,即使用铁磁流体对传统液压系统中的液压流质进行改良,外加磁场直接控制高压液流的流向,实现系统压力的换向。在铁磁流体动力学(Ferro Hydro Dynamics, FHD)的基础上建立了喷射在空气介质中的铁磁流体在外磁场作用下流动的数学模型,并利用二次开发的Fluent软件建立了气液两相的欧拉(Eulerian)模型,模拟了在不同磁场强度下铁磁流体液流的偏移及分散等动力学行为。结果表明,在0.08 T磁场作用下,当流出高度为30 mm时,液流的偏移量为1.1 mm,并通过实验验证了模型的正确性。在新型铁磁流体液压驱动系统中,高压液流的激励由磁场提供,不需运动部件。该方案具有结构紧凑简单、施加激励参数易调节、响应迅速等优点。