Identification and antibiotic susceptibility of bacterial isolates from probiotic products

In the present study, a total of 55 European probiotic products were evaluated with regard to the identity and the antibiotic resistance of the bacterial isolates recovered from these products. Bacterial isolation from 30 dried food supplements and 25 dairy products, yielded a total of 268 bacterial isolates selected from several selective media. Counts of food supplements showed bacterial recovery in 19 (63%) of the dried food supplements ranging from 10(3) to 10(6) CFU/g, whereas all dairy products yielded growth in the range of 10(5)-10(9) CFU/ml. After identification of the isolates using whole-cell protein profiling, mislabeling was noted in 47% of the food supplements and 40% of the dairy products. In six food supplements, Enterococcus faecium was isolated whereas only two of those products claim this species on their label. Using the disc diffusion method, antibiotic resistance among 187 isolates was detected against kanamycin (79% of the isolates), vancomycin (65%), tetracycline (26%), penicillinG (23%), erythromycin (16%) and chloramphenicol (11%). Overall, 68.4% of the isolates showed resistance against multiple antibiotics including intrinsic resistances. Initially, 38% of the isolated enterococci was classified as vancomycin resistant using the disc diffusion method, whereas additional broth dilution and PCR assays clearly showed that all E. faecium isolates were in fact vancomycin susceptible.     

Antibiotic resistance in food lactic acid bacteria--a review

Antibiotics are a major tool utilized by the health care industry to fight bacterial infections; however, bacteria are highly adaptable creatures and are capable of developing resistance to antibiotics. Consequently, decades of antibiotic use, or rather misuse, have resulted in bacterial resistance to many modern antibiotics. This antibiotic resistance can cause significant danger and suffering for many people with common bacterial infections, those once easily treated with antibiotics. For several decades studies on selection and dissemination of antibiotic resistance have focused mainly on clinically relevant species. However, recently many investigators have speculated that commensal bacteria including lactic acid bacteria (LAB) may act as reservoirs of antibiotic resistance genes similar to those found in human pathogens. The main threat associated with these bacteria is that they can transfer resistance genes to pathogenic bacteria. Genes conferring resistance to tetracycline, erythromycin and vancomycin have been detected and characterized in Lactococcus lactis, Enterococci and, recently, in Lactobacillus species isolated from fermented meat and milk products. A number of initiatives have been recently launched by various organizations across the globe to address the biosafety concerns of starter cultures and probiotic microorganisms. The studies can lead to better understanding of the role played by the dairy starter microorganisms in horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes to intestinal microorganisms and food-associated pathogenic bacteria.     

Pollution-induced community tolerance of soil microbial communities caused by the antibiotic sulfachloropyridazine

Little is known about the environmental hazards linked to the treatment of farm animals with antibiotics and subsequent spreading of manure, especially regarding soil microbial communities. In this investigation, pollution-induced community tolerance (PICT) of bacteria from soils artificially spiked with the sulfonamide sulfachloropyridazine (SCP) was investigated. Tolerance of the bacterial communities after 3 weeks' exposure to SCP was determined by analyzing the sensitivity of 31 microbial metabolic processes in microtiter plates. Bacterial suspensions extracted from soils containing higher concentrations of SCP showed an increased tolerance of their metabolic activities to this antibiotic. An increase in tolerance by 10% was found at 7.3 mg/kg dw SCP. The PICT effect could be demonstrated by both a shift in the tolerance of the average of all metabolic activities and a shift of the physiological process sensitivity distributions made up from the single metabolic processes. The PICT effect was accompanied by smaller changes in the community-level physiological profile (CLPP). To conclude, PICT has been shown to be a versatile and illustrative method for the detection of the effects of antibacterial agents on soil microorganisms.     

牦牛奶酪中乳酸菌对抗生素的药敏性

分析牦牛奶酪中乳酸菌对常用抗生素的药敏性。采用纸片扩散法测定分离自牦牛奶酪的39 株乳酸菌对8 种常用抗生素的药敏性。结果表明：39 株乳酸菌都有耐药性,主要对万古霉素、新霉素、链霉素和萘啶酮酸有抗性,抗性菌株分别达到了36 株（92.3%）、32 株（82.1%）、38 株（97.4%）和39 株（100%）,菌株的耐药性有一定的种间差异,部分菌株有多重耐药性。     

Ready-to-eat shrimp as an international vehicle of antibiotic-resistant bacteria

The occurrence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in foods of animal origin is a potential health threat because resistance can be transferred among bacteria, and antibiotic-resistant pathogens may not respond to antibiotic treatments. Thirteen brands of ready-to-eat shrimp representing four countries of origin were obtained from local grocery stores. Total heterotrophic plate counts were determined, and antibiotic-resistant bacteria were isolated. Total heterotrophic colony counts ranged from 3.3 to 5.6 log CFU/g, which was within approved quality limits. A total of 1,564 isolates representing 162 bacterial species were recovered during screening of resistance to 10 antibiotics: ampicillin, ceftriaxone, chloramphenicol, clindamycin, erythromycin, nalidixic acid, streptomycin, tetracycline, trimethoprim, and vancomycin. Six hundred fifty-seven (42%) of the isolates and 131 (81%) of the species had acquired resistance to antibiotics. Numerous resistant human pathogens were isolated, including Escherichia coli, Enterococcus spp., Salmonella, Shigella flexneri, Staphylococcus spp., and Vibrio spp. Nonresistant Yersinia spp. also were isolated. Ready-to-eat shrimp is sold with instructions to thaw the product before serving, which may result in consumer exposure to antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Widespread trade of this product provides an avenue for international dissemination of antibiotic-resistant pathogens.     

Diversity and antibiotic resistance of enterococci associated with stored-product insects collected from feed mills

Diversity and antibiotic resistance of enterococci associated with stored-product insects were assessed by screening 298 live adults from nine insect species collected from six feed mills in the midwestern United States. The eight antibiotics tested were tetracycline, ampicillin, erythromycin, vancomycin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, streptomycin, and neomycin. Enterococci were isolated from seven out of nine insect species collected. A majority of enterococci and aerococci were isolated from the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst). Approximately 18% of the insects tested positive for bacteria on mEnterococcus agar, and the mean colony forming units ranged from 2×10¹ to 1.3×10⁵ per insect. Bacteria isolated on mEnterococcus agar included Enterococcus faecium, Enterococcus gallinarum, and Aerococcus viridans 3. Isolates of E. faecium displayed complete or intermediate resistance, most frequently to neomycin, tetracycline, and erythromycin. In addition, many E. faecium isolates exhibited intermediate resistance to vancomycin. The majority of A. viridans 3 isolates were susceptible to all antibiotics, while isolates of E. gallinarum displayed resistance to neomycin. Enterococci and aerococci are nosocomial human pathogens and are implicated in secondary infections, mainly in immuno-compromised individuals. Additionally, enterococci are considered an important reservoir of antibiotic resistance genes that can be horizontally transferred to other bacteria, including serious human pathogens. Our data reinforce the need for pest management to reduce the availability of vectors (insects) for dissemination of microorganisms carrying antibiotic resistance genes in the feed mill environment.     

Presence of multidrug-resistant enteric bacteria in dairy farm topsoil

In addition to human and veterinary medicine, antibiotics are extensively used in agricultural settings, such as for treatment of infections, growth enhancement, and prophylaxis in food animals, leading to selection of drug and multidrug-resistant bacteria. To help circumvent the problem of bacterial antibiotic resistance, it is first necessary to understand the scope of the problem. However, it is not fully understood how widespread antibiotic-resistant bacteria are in agricultural settings. The lack of such surveillance data is especially evident in dairy farm environments, such as soil. It is also unknown to what extent various physiological modulators, such as salicylate, a component of aspirin and known model modulator of multiple antibiotic resistance (mar) genes, influence bacterial multi-drug resistance. We isolated and identified enteric soil bacteria from local dairy farms within Roosevelt County, NM, determined the resistance profiles to antibiotics associated with mar, such as chloramphenicol, nalidixic acid, penicillin G, and tetracycline. We then purified and characterized plasmid DNA and detected mar phenotypic activity. The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of antibiotics for the isolates ranged from 6 to >50 microg/mL for chloramphenicol, 2 to 8 microg/mL for nalidixic acid, 25 to >300 microg/mL for penicillin G, and 1 to >80 microg/mL for tetracycline. On the other hand, many of the isolates had significantly enhanced MIC for the same antibiotics in the presence of 5 mM salicylate. Plasmid DNA extracted from 12 randomly chosen isolates ranged in size from 6 to 12.5 kb and, in several cases, conferred resistance to chloramphenicol and penicillin G. It is concluded that enteric bacteria from dairy farm topsoil are multidrug resistant and harbor antibiotic-resistance plasmids. A role for dairy topsoil in zoonoses is suggested, implicating this environment as a reservoir for development of bacterial resistance against clinically relevant antibiotics.     

Antimicrobial susceptibility of enterococci strains isolated from slaughter animals on the data of Hungarian resistance monitoring system from 2001 to 2004

Isolates of Enterococcus spp. were collected from January 2001 to December 2004 from caecal samples of slaughtered poultry, swine and cattle in Hungary. The isolates were identified by their growth and biochemical properties and with PCR. The antibiotic susceptibility of a total number of 1272 isolates was tested with disk diffusion test to ampicillin, gentamicin, streptomycin, tetracycline, erythromycin and vancomycin. It was established that although ampicillin and amoxicillin are often used in veterinary practice its resistance rate was relatively low. In the case of tetracyclines and macrolides, a high incidence of resistance was found. Susceptibility of strains to tetracyclines and/or macrolides reduced in both 2003 and 2004 in all animal species, which may be due to the more frequent usage of these drugs in the veterinary practice following the ban of growth promoters. The annual data of vancomycin resistance point to an association between the recovery of vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) isolates and the use of avoparcin. This study indicates that reducing antimicrobial resistance in food animals could be possible with lower usage of antibiotics, although variations can occur with different strains.     

Antibiotic survey of Lactococcus lactis strains to six antibiotics by Etest, and establishment of new susceptibility-resistance cut-off values

In order to establish cut-off values for Lactococcus lactis to six antibiotics to distinguish susceptible and intrinsically resistant strains from those having acquired resistances, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of tetracycline, erythromycin, clindamycin, streptomycin, chloramphenicol and vancomycin was determined in 93 different Lc. lactis strains using the Etest. These bacterial strains were originally isolated from dairy and animal sources in widely separated geographical locations. Cut-offs were defined on the basis of the distribution of the MICs frequency of the studied antibiotics, which in the absence of acquired determinants should approach to a normal statistical distribution. In general, the new cut-off values proposed in this study are higher than previously defined (European Commission, 2005. The EFSA Journal 223, 1-12). Based on these new values, all the strains tested were susceptible to erythromycin, chloramphenicol and vancomycin, and 79 susceptible to all six antibiotics. However, 11 strains (around 12%) were considered resistant to tetracycline (six of which had been identified after screening of a large collection of lactococci strains for tetracycline resistance) and five (5.4%) resistant to streptomycin. Of these, two fish isolates proved to be resistance to both tetracycline and streptomycin. From the tetracycline resistant strains, tet(M) and mosaic tet(L/S) genes were amplified by PCR, demonstrating they harboured acquired antibiotic resistance determinants.     

全基因组测序分析2018年江西省临床分离非伤寒沙门菌耐药性研究

目的 掌握2018年江西省食源性疾病病例的非伤寒沙门菌分离株的耐药特征、耐药表型与耐药基因之间的对应关系,评价全基因组测序(whole genome sequencing,WGS)技术在耐药监测的应用前景。方法 本研究以2018年江西省食源性疾病病例分离的58株非伤寒沙门菌为研究对象,用微量肉汤稀释法检测菌株对14种抗菌药物的耐药性,对58株非伤寒沙门菌进行WGS,拼接后的序列经过与ResFinder数据库比对,注释耐药基因。结果 58株非伤寒沙门菌对四环素耐药率最高(77.59%,45/58),其次是氨苄西林(72.41%,42/58),对亚胺培南全部敏感。耐3类及3类以上抗生素的多重耐药菌株占56.90%(33/58),最高为6重耐药菌株占3.45%(2/58)。58株非伤寒沙门菌共筛选出47种11类耐药基因,喹诺酮耐药决定区(quinolone resistance-determining region, QRDR)存在gyrA、gyrB和parC基因突变。菌株对氨基糖苷类耐药基因携带率最高为100.00%(58/58),其次是四环素类耐药基因 携带率为72.41%(42/58),大环内酯类耐药基因携带率最低为3.45%(2/58)。携带3类及3类以上耐药基因的菌株占77.59%(45/58),1.72%(1/58)菌株最高携带9类耐药基因。58株非伤寒沙门菌的药敏试验结果与检测出的已知耐药基因总体符合率达93.43%(611/654)。除喹诺酮类外,其他类别的抗生素耐药表型与耐药基因符合率均高于91%,部分种类的抗生素耐药表型与基因符合率达100%。结论 非伤寒沙门菌耐药现象较为严重,其耐药表型与耐药基因有很高的一致性,WGS可作为预测沙门菌耐药性的有效手段。     

克罗诺杆菌的生物膜检测和药敏性分析

目的：了解38 株主要来源于我国婴幼儿食品克罗诺杆菌分离株的生物膜形成能力和药敏性。方法：首先用fusA序列分析,对43 株克罗诺杆菌进行准确鉴定;采用半定量黏附实验（结晶紫染色法）测定分离株的生物膜形成能力,并选用八大类11 种抗生素测定其抗生素敏感性。结果：鉴定出34 株阪崎克罗诺杆菌、7 株丙二酸盐克罗诺杆菌和2 株都柏林克罗诺杆菌。这些克罗诺杆菌分离株均有一定生物膜成膜能力,其中丙二酸盐克罗诺杆菌的成膜能力较强;菌株普遍对四环素和万古霉素耐药性较高,共有14 个耐药谱;四环素的耐药性与生物膜形成能力有显著相关性。结论：实验结果表明克罗诺杆菌的成膜性和耐药性都较强,对相关食品企业的消杀措施和临床治疗提出了挑战。     

Comparison of antibiotic resistance of udder pathogens in dairy cows kept on organic and on conventional farms

There has been a rapid rise in the emergence of multi-drug-resistant pathogens in the past 10 to 15 yr and some bacteria are now resistant to most antimicrobial agents. Antibiotic use is very restricted on Swiss organic dairy farms, and a purely prophylactic use, such as for dry cow mastitis prevention, is forbidden. A low prevalence of antibiotic resistance in organic farms can be expected compared with conventional farms because the bacteria are infrequently or not exposed to antibiotics. The occurrence of antibiotic resistance was compared between mastitis pathogens (Staphylococcus aureus, nonaureus staphylococci, Streptococcus dysgalactiae, Streptococcus uberis) from farms with organic and conventional dairy production. Clear differences in the percentage of antibiotic resistance were mainly species-related, but did not differ significantly between isolates from cows kept on organic and conventional farms, except for Streptococcus uberis, which exhibited significantly more single resistances (compared with no resistance) when isolated from cows kept on organic farms (6/10 isolates) than on conventional farms (0/5 isolates). Different percentages were found (albeit not statistically significant) in resistance to ceftiofur, erythromycin, clindamycin, enrofloxacin, chloramphenicol, penicillin, oxacillin, gentamicin, tetracycline, and quinupristin-dalfopristin, but, importantly, none of the strains was resistant to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid or vancomycin. Multidrug resistance was rarely encountered. The frequency of antibiotic resistance in organic farms, in which the use of antibiotics must be very restricted, was not different from conventional farms, and was contrary to expectation. The antibiotic resistance status needs to be monitored in organic farms as well as conventional farms and production factors related to the absence of reduced antibiotic resistance in organic farms need to be evaluated.     

Antibiotic Resistance Traits and Molecular Subtyping of Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Raw Sheep Milk Cheese

The main objective of the present research was to evaluate the antibiotic resistance profiles of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from raw sheep milk cheese. A total of 150 strains were isolated from curd cheese samples and identified as S. aureus. The survey on antibiotic resistance was carried out on 47 strains, selected among isolates showing differences in the banding pattern after Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE) screening or, belonging at the same pulsotype but isolated from different cheese samples. On selected strains antimicrobial resistance against ampicillin, penicillin, cloxacillin, tetracycline, erythromycin, and vancomycin was assessed by broth microdilution method. The presence of the genes coding for antibiotic resistance and virulence factors (agr alleles, sea‐see, and tst) was also investigated by PCR. Thirty‐one isolates belonging to agrI and agrIII groups carried at least one gene coding for enterotoxins or toxic shock syndrome toxin. Approximately 60% of the selected strains were susceptible to the tested antibiotics. Twelve of 47 isolates showed multiple resistance against ampicillin and penicillin. Only 1 strain, represented by a unique PFGE profile showed simultaneous resistance to ampicillin, penicillin and cloxacillin. Single resistance against tetracycline was found in 5 isolates belonging to 2 different pulsotypes. The results of this study suggest that the recovery of S. aureus resistant strains in raw milk cheese samples is quite common but it is limited to few antibiotic classes, mainly β‐lactams and tetracyclines. None of the strains showed resistance to erythromycin and vancomycin.     

Antimicrobial resistance of bacterial flora associated with bovine products in South Africa.

The administration of subtherapeutic doses of antibiotics to livestock introduces selective pressures that may lead to the emergence and dissemination of resistant bacteria. This study determined the antibiotic-resistance spectra of the microbial flora found on freshly slaughtered and retail beef and in unpasteurized and pasteurized packaged milk. Staphylococci, Enterobacteriaeae, and isolates from total aerobic plate counts were tested for resistance to vancomycin, streptomycin, methicillin, tetracycline, and gentamicin using the disc diffusion susceptibility test and resistance to penicillin was determined by using oxacillin. A larger proportion of resistance to most antibiotics, except for vancomycin, was displayed by isolates from abattoir samples. The incidence of multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) pathogenic bacteria is also higher in the abattoir. Resistance genes lost because of lack of selective pressure or resistant flora being replaced by more sensitive flora during processing is the reason for the lower incidence of MAR pathogenic bacteria among retail samples. These resistant bacteria can be transferred to humans through the consumption of rare or raw beef and unpasteurized milk, thus rendering the resultant food-related infections difficult to treat. The present findings clearly demonstrate that antibiotic-resistant bacteria in beef and milk pose a serious problem in South Africa.     

Prevalence of glycopeptide and aminoglycoside resistance in Enterococcus and Listeria spp. in low microbial load diets of neutropenic hospital patients

Low microbial load diets for patients with haematological malignancy were examined for enterococci and listeria using pre-enrichment, enrichment and selective plating. Enterococci were highly prevalent and their ecology diverse; 100/211 samples yielded 132 isolates made up of 67 strains distinguishable by PFGE. Listeria monocytogenes was not found. Screening of enterococci for antibiotic resistance showed low level vancomycin resistance (6-12 microg/ml) in six isolates of E. gallinarum and high level streptomycin resistance (> or = 1000 microg/ml) in eight isolates from various foods. No strains showing high level glycopeptide or gentamicin resistance were found. The high prevalence of enterococci in food processed for safety indicates a possible route for the acquisition of antibiotic-resistant strains by vulnerable hospital patients.     

Phenotypic and Genotypic Antimicrobial Resistance Traits of Foodborne Staphylococcus aureus Isolates from Shanghai

Staphylococcus aureus is a recognized pathogen in humans, which causes nosocomial infections and food poisoning. The transmission of antibiotic resistant S. aureus (ARSA), especially methicillin‐resistant S. aureus, between food products and humans has become a serious problem. Hence, it is necessary to monitor S. aureus through the food supply chain. In this study, the disk diffusion method and epsilometer test were performed to determine the prevalence of ARSA in 78 foodborne isolates using 18 antibiotics. The highest resistance frequency was found for penicillin G (74.4%), followed by erythromycin (59.0%) and clindamycin (44.9%), whereas no vancomycin‐resistant isolates were found. The 78 isolates could be subtyped into 31 resistance profiles and 11 clusters based on their antimicrobial susceptibility. Furthermore, Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) screening for the presence of 13 genes conferring antibiotic resistance was conducted. The presence of resistance genes was relatively high: bla_TEM (80.8%), ermB (41.0%), grlA (38.5%), ermC (35.9%), and aac6’/aph2” (35.9%). The incidence of antibiotic resistance was significantly correlated to food types (p = 0.018), with isolates from meat and raw milk more resistant to antibiotics than those from frozen food and vegetables.     

Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium isolates from milk,beef, and chicken and their antibiotic resistance

The occurrence and antibiotic resistance of enterococci, especially Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium, in milk, beef, and chicken in Gaborone, Botswana, were studied. Enterococci were isolated from these sources with the use of bile esculin agar and identified with API 20 Strep kits. Antibiotic resistance was determined by the disk diffusion method. The antibiotics tested were vancomycin, teicoplanin, ampicillin, tetracycline, and cephalothin. Among the 1,467 enterococci isolated from the samples, E. faecalis (46.1%) and E. faecium (29.0%) were found to be the predominant species. Other enterococcal species made up 25% of the isolates. More than 96 and 97% of the E. faecalis and E. faecium isolates, respectively, were found to be resistant to ampicillin. Almost 34, 27.3, and 22.4% of the E. faecalis isolates from milk, beef, and chicken, respectively, were also resistant to cephalothin. The percentages of E. faecium isolates that were found to be resistant to cephalothin were 32.8, 16.9, and 17.3% for milk, beef, and chicken, respectively. Resistance to vancomycin was widespread. It was found that 18.8, 7.8. and 13.1% of the E. faecalis isolates from milk, beef, and chicken samples, respectively, were resistant to vancomycin. In contrast, 32.8, 24.7, and 30.7% of the E. faecium isolates from milk, beef, and chicken samples, respectively, were resistant to vancomycin. Isolates that were resistant to multiple drugs were found in relatively large numbers.     

Occurrence and spread of antibiotic resistances in Enterococcus faecium

Enterococci are the second to third most important bacterial genus in hospital infections. Especially Enterococcus (E.) faecium possesses a broad spectrum of natural and acquired antibiotic resistances which are presented in detail in this paper. From medical point of view, the transferable resistances to glycopeptides (e.g., vancomycin, VAN, or teicoplanin, TPL) and streptogramins (e.g., quinupristin/dalfopristin, Q/D) in enterococci are of special interest. The VanA type of enterococcal glycopeptide resistance is the most important one (VAN-r, TPL-r); its main reservoir is E. faecium. Glycopeptide-resistant E. faecium (GREF) can be found in hospitals and outside of them, namely in European commercial animal husbandry in which the glycopeptide avoparcin (AVO) was used as growth promoter in the past. There are identical types of the vanA gene clusters in enterococci from different ecological origins (faecal samples of animals, animal feed, patients in hospitals, persons in the community, waste water samples). Obviously, across the food chain (by GREF-contaminated meat products), these multiple-resistant bacteria or their vanA gene clusters can reach humans. In hospital infections, widespread epidemic-virulent E. faecium isolates of the same clone with or without glycopeptide resistance can occur; these strains often harbour different plasmids and the esp gene. This indicates that hospital-adapted epidemic-virulent E. faecium strains have picked up the vanA gene cluster after they were already widely spread. The streptogramin virginiamycin was also used as feed additive in commercial animal husbandry in Europe for more than 20 years, and it created reservoirs for streptogramin-resistant E. faecium (SREF). In 1998/1999, SREF could be isolated in Germany from waste water of sewage treatment plants, from faecal samples and meat products of animals that were fed virginiamycin (cross resistance to Q/D), from stools of humans in the community, and from clinical samples. These isolations of SREF occurred in a time before the streptogramin combination Q/D was introduced for therapeutic purposes in German hospitals in May 2000, while other streptogramins were not used in German clinics. This seems to indicate that the origin of these SREF or their streptogramin resistance gene(s) originated from other sources outside the hospitals, probably from commercial animal husbandry. In order to prevent the dissemination of multiple antibiotic-resistant enterococci or their transferable resistance genes, a prudent use of antibiotics is necessary in human and veterinary medicine, and in animal husbandry.     

Resistance of bacterial isolates from poultry products to therapeutic veterinary antibiotics

Bacterial isolates from poultry products were tested for their susceptibility to 10 antibiotics commonly used in the therapeutic treatment of poultry. Bacteria were isolated from fresh whole broiler carcasses or from cut-up meat samples (breast with or without skin, wings, and thighs) that were either fresh or stored at 4 or 13 degrees C (temperatures relevant to poultry-processing facilities). The Biolog system was used to identify isolates, and a broth dilution method was used to determine the antibiotic resistance properties of both these isolates and complementary cultures from the American Type Culture Collection. The antibiotics to which the most resistance was noted were penicillin G, sulfadimethoxine, and erythromycin; the antibiotic to which the least resistance was noted was enrofloxacin. Individual isolates exhibited resistances to as many as six antibiotics, with the most common resistance pattern involving the resistance of gram-negative bacteria to penicillin G, sulfadimethoxine, and erythromycin. Differences in resistance patterns were noted among 18 gram-positive and 7 gram-negative bacteria, and comparisons were made between species within the same genus. The data obtained in this study provide a useful reference for the species and resistance properties of bacteria found on various raw poultry products, either fresh or stored at temperatures and for times relevant to commercial processing, storage, and distribution. The results of this study show that resistance to antibiotics used for the therapeutic treatment of poultry occurs in bacteria in the processing environment.     

市售鸡肉中沙门菌分离株多重耐药谱测定

为了解我国市售鸡肉中沙门菌多重耐药状况及耐药程度，对国家食源性疾病监测网从市售鸡肉中分离到的51株沙门菌进行耐药检测，并对多重耐药谱进行分析。利用NccLs(National Committee of Clinical Labaratory Standard)推荐的纸片法进行耐药检测，51株分离菌株全部对至少3种以上的抗生素耐药，属多重耐药株，耐5种抗生素的9株(17.6％)，耐6～9种抗生素的12株(23．5％)，耐10种以上抗生素的9株(17．6％)。51株沙门菌对万古霉素、红霉素、苯唑西林都具有耐药性(100％)，对其它抗生素的耐药情况是：萘啶酮酸(52.9％)、磺胺(35．3％)、链霉素(33．3％)、四环素(29.4％)、氨苄青霉素(23．5％)、羧苄西林(21.6％)、阿莫西林(19．6％)、吡拉西林(19．6％)、美唑西林(17．6％)、强力霉素(17．6％)、氯霉素(13．7)和头孢噻吩(9．8％)。有3株菌对庆大霉素耐药，有2株菌对丁胺卡那霉素和甲氧苄胺嘧啶耐药，有1株菌对复方新诺明耐药。分离出1株耐15种抗生素的鼠伤寒沙门菌，其耐药谱与超级耐药鼠伤寒沙门菌DTl04的耐药谱类似。从8省市市售鸡肉中分离的51株沙门菌均为多重耐药株，提示我国畜牧养殖业在使用抗生素方面存在严重问题，应加强对饲料添加剂使用的安全性管理，合理使用抗生素。