Computer-mediated communication and persuasion: Peripheral vs. central route to opinion shift

Objective of this research was to investigate the differences between face-to-face communication and computer-mediated communication regarding opinion change in small group decision-making. We hypothesized that people in a discussion through computer-mediated communication accede to cognitive processes that could facilitate resisting the effects of a persuasive message.     

A new perspective on de-individuation via computer-mediated communication

Research examining de-individuation via computer-mediated communication (CMC) suggests that group pressure is more pronounced in CMC-using groups than in groups meeting face to face, because CMC strips away non-verbal cues and makes individuals feel more similar to the others in their group. Similarly, electronic voting research suggests that group influence is more pronounced via group support systems when the opinions of others are communicated in real time. However, recent research involving complete anonymity suggests that group influence is mitigated via anonymous CMC because of a lack of awareness of others. Thus, we propose that increased group influence is facilitated when others’ opinions are communicated, and is heightened with the common identity created through the use of nominal labels. This paper reports the results of a laboratory experiment involving groups making an organization decision via a text-based chat room. The results show that a simple electronic voting interface element increased the amount of group influence on individual members, and led to decreased participation and higher dispensability.     

Does ‘cyber-conformity’ vary cross-culturally? Exploring the effect of culture and communication medium on social conformity

Previous research has established that individuals from collectivistic cultures tend to conform more than their counterparts from individualistic cultures do [Bond, R., & Smith, P.B. (1996). Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of studies using Asch’s (1952b, 1956) line judgment task. Psychological Bulletin 119(1) 111–137]. However, there is presently a dearth of research exploring the degree to which this kind of cross-cultural difference is also present in computer-mediated communication (CMC) contexts where group members are never met face-to-face (f-t-f). A normative social influence paradigm of line-length judgment (based on Asch [Asch, S.E., (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American 193(5) 31–35]) was employed to investigate the effects of communication medium (f-t-f against CMC) and culture (participants from individualistic cultures against those from collectivist cultures). A communication type × culture interaction was found, in which the expected cultural differences were demonstrated only in the face-to-face conditions, being absent in computer-mediated conditions.     

Rationalist assumptions in cross-media comparisons of computer-mediated communication

Users' comparisons between computer-mediated communication (CMC) and other forms of communication are of theoretical interest and have important implications for system design and implementation. This paper outlines the prevalent systems-rationalist perspective on CMC, which sees the medium primarily as an efficient channel for information transfer in specific organizational tasks, and critically reviews the evidence that studies of users' perceptions and media preferences offer for this generalized view. In advocating a widening of our perspective on CMC, a field study is described in which electronic mail users within a large commercial telecommunications company were invited to compare eight different communication activities, using repertory grid technique. From a total of 91 user-generated constructs, five principal dimensions were identified that accounted for users' discriminations among the different activities. Electronic mailing was construed as being similar to written activities (such as note-writing) on some dimensions (e.g., ' asynchrony', ' emotional quality' but similar to spoken, face-to-face communication on other dimensions such as ' spontaneity'. The results suggest that the group of users construed CMC mainly in terms of its attributes as a medium for conversation and social interaction. There was no evidence of spontaneous task-related media comparisons. These results together with findings from other studies are discussed in terms of rationalist and symbolic interactionist perspectives on CMC. Implications for system design are also considered.     

Equality of participation and influence in groups: The effects of communication medium and sex composition

We tested the claim that computer-mediated communication (CMC) is more egalitarian than face-to-face (FTF) communication by studying patterns of reported participation and influence in 30 FTF and 30 synchronous CMC groups over seven weeks. Twenty-two of these groups were composed of a majority of males or females; these were used to test effects of communication medium and sex composition on relative levels of participation and influence among group members. Competing predictions were derived from three theories: proportional theory, social role theory, and expectation states theory. Results indicated that CMC participation was perceived as more centralized than was FTF participation in groups' first meetings, but as similar for the remaining six meetings. Results revealed no or weak support for any of the competing theories of sex composition. Influence was perceived as most centralized in CMC majority-male groups and in FTF majority-female groups. In CMC groups, males in majority-female groups were perceived as having more influence than their female group members, whereas males in majority-male groups were perceived as having less influence than their female group members. In FTF groups, the ratio of male-to-female influence in majority-male and majority-female groups did not differ significantly. Implications of these findings and the need for additional longitudinal research are discussed.     

The development of group identity in computer and face-to-face groups with membership change

A three-part conception of group identity is proposed that draws on common fate, cohesiveness, and cognitive views of group identity. The changing contribution of these three components to group identity was examined for 31 original and 29 reconfigured groups which met for 7 consecutive weeks using either face-to-face (FIF) or computer-mediated communication (CMC). Group identity was consistently lower for computer-mediated groups, and this effect was stronger in the reconfigured groups. In the original groups, group identity started high and declined for both FTF and CMC groups. In the reconfigured groups, developmental patterns differed from those of the original groups, and also differed by communication medium. Individual differences accounted for a substantial amount of variance in group identity across original and reconfigured groups.     

The positive and negative implications of anonymity in Internet social interactions: “On the Internet, Nobody Knows You’re a Dog”

The growth of the Internet at a means of communication has sparked the interest of researchers in several fields (e.g. communication, social psychology, industrial-organizational psychology) to investigate the issues surrounding the expression of different social behaviors in this unique social context. Of special interest to researchers is the increased importance that anonymity seems to play in computer-mediated communication (CMC). This paper reviews the literature related to the issues of anonymity within the social context, particularly in CMC, demonstrating the usefulness of established social psychological theory to explain behavior in CMC and discussing the evolution of the current theoretical explanations in explaining the effects of anonymity in social behavior in CMC environments. Several suggestions for future research are proposed in an attempt to provide researchers with new avenues to investigate how anonymity can play both positive and negative roles in CMC.     

Overcoming social awareness in computer-supported groups

We examined status effects in face-to-face and computer-mediated three-person groups. Our expectation that low status members in computer-mediated group discussions would participate more equally, and have more influence over decisions, than their counterparts in face-to-face groups was not confirmed. The results suggest that knowledge of status differences and labels were used to form cognitive impressions of other group members. It seems that when group members are aware of the status characteristics of the group, social cues were magnified rather than redüced. Implications of these findings for mixed status cooperative work groups and for the design of computer communication systems are discussed.     

Emotion encoding and interpretation in computer-mediated communication: Reasons for use

As computer-mediated communication (CMC) is increasingly used to build and maintain relationships, the examination of channel choice for the development of these social ties becomes important to study. Using free response data from Riordan and Kreuz (submitted for publication), we examine reasons for choosing among face-to-face, asynchronous email, or synchronous instant message channels to transmit negatively or positively valenced emotional information. The most common reason for choosing face-to-face over channels of CMC was the ability to use more nonverbal cues. The most common reason for choosing a CMC channel over face-to-face was to shield oneself from the message recipient. Face-to-face was deemed more effective, more personal, more comfortable, and less permanent than CMC channels. Reasons differed significantly by valence and channel. We suggest that better knowledge of why people choose certain channels for different types of socio-emotional communication can help develop more comprehensive theories of CMC that account for different attributes of each channel in information transmission.     

Online vs. Face-to-Face Deliberation: Effects on Civic Engagement

Deliberation is considered to produce positive effects on public opinion, in that it exposes participants to alternative perspectives and rational arguments. However, whereas benefits of face-to-face deliberation have been supported by many empirical studies, the effects of online deliberation remain unclear to date. This research compares the effects of online and face-to-face deliberation in experimental settings. A theoretical review of computer-mediated communication and deliberative democracy suggests that online deliberation is not necessarily inferior to face-to-face deliberation. An experiment was conducted to compare the relative outcomes of a deliberation performed in face-to-face and computer-mediated settings. The results suggest that both online and face-to-face deliberation can increase participants' issue knowledge, political efficacy, and willingness to participate in politics.     

Gender and computer-mediated communication: group processes in problem solving

The study reports results from an experiment investigating aspects of communicative processes, using face-to-face (FtF) communication and computer-mediated communication (CMC). The latter was performed in two variants: participants writing under their own names or participants writing anonymously. There were two problems to be solved, both having ambiguous solutions. The theoretical aim was to determine if gender would influence communication equality, social relations, and communicative processes. Furthermore, private and public self-awareness was studied in order to identify differences between the media and between the sexes. The results show that participants discussing FtF were more private self-aware than participants in CMC, and females were more private self-aware than males. Females produced more messages in FtF communication than they did in CMC, and there were also more opinion change from females than from males. Social judgements were more positive from females than from males. A qualitative analysis showed that females expressed more opinions and agreements in FtF communication than in CMC, but also that they agreed more than males in responding to messages from a male. There were also more disagreements in FtF communication than in CMC.     

Anonymity effects in computer-mediated communication in the case of minority influence

In an experimental study, we analyzed in-group minority social influence within the context of computer-mediated communication (CMC) based on the perspective of the social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE). This model hypothesizes that in a group context, in which social identity is salient, anonymity will facilitate influence among the group members. Using a software application, we simulated the creation of a virtual group and the setting of a computer-mediated communication. The interaction between the members of the group centers on the issue of North African immigration. The results show that the influence of an in-group minority (radical pro-immigration) causes changes of opinion, as demonstrated in the two groups participating in the experimental test (anonymous and identifiable users). However, the differences in such changes between the identifiable and the anonymous groups are not statistically significant, whereas for two dependent variables from the opinion questionnaire, (i.e., “strong” anti-immigration and pro-immigration), they are significant when these two groups are compared to the control group. Therefore, the postulates of the SIDE model are only partially confirmed. We offer some explanations for the results obtained, and outline different aspects involved in the process of social influence via CMC.     

The impact of computer-mediated communication on self-awareness

The present research investigated whether computer-mediated communication enhances users' private self-awareness, while lowering their public self-awareness. Self-report measures of acute private and public self-awareness were administered to 55 subjects following either face-to-face or computer-mediated discussions of two choice-dilemma problems. It was found that, relative to the face-to-face comparison group, subjects using computer-mediation reported significantly higher levels of acute private self-awareness, and marginally lower levels of public self-awareness. Although computer users did not evaluate the social context differently from subjects communicating face-to-face, their evaluations were associated with the degree of acute public self-awareness they were experiencing. Low public self-aware computer users were more likely to evaluate the social context negatively. The social evaluations of face-to-face subjects were not related to their levels of self-awareness. The implications of these findings for future research examining the social psychological impact of computers and their use in different contexts are discussed.     

Affect in Computer-Meditated Communication: An Experiment in Synchronous Terminal-to-Terminal Discussion

With the spread of computer networks, communication via computer conferences, electronic mail, and computer bulletin boards will become more common in society, but little is known about the social psychological implications of these technologies. One possibility is a change in physiological arousal, feelings, and expressive behavior-that is, affect. These computer-mediated communication technologies focus attention on the message, transmit social information poorly, and do not have a well-developed social etiquette. Therefore, these technologies might be associated with less attention to others, less social feedback, and depersonalization of the communication setting. In the present study we examined what would happen to feelings and interpersonal behavior in an experiment in which two people met for the first time and discussed a series of questions in order to get to know one another. We measured physiological arousal (pulse and palmar sweat), subjective affect (emotional state and evaluations), and expressive behavior (self-disclosure and uninhibited behavior) in both synchronous computer-mediated and face-to-face discussions. (For comparison purposes, we also examined these effects under high- and low-evaluation anxiety). Communicating by computer did not influence physiological arousal, and it did not change emotions or self-evaluations. However, people who communicated by computer evaluated each other less favorably than did people who communicated face-to-face, they felt and acted as though the setting was more impersonal, and their behavior was more uninhibited. These findings suggest that computer-mediated communication, rather than provoking emotionality per se, elicits asocial or unregulated behavior. Of course, our data are based on a laboratory experiment using just one type of computer-mediated communication, but the results are generally consistent with anecdotal evidence and new field research on how people use computers to communicate in organizations.     

A reexamination of deindividuation in synchronous computer-mediated communication

Classical deindividuation theory has been posited as a useful framework for understanding certain cognitive and behavioral changes commonly seen in computer-mediated communication (CMC). Participants in CMC discussion groups were significantly more immersed in the discussion than face-to-face (FTF) discussants, and tended not to perceive their team members as individuals, providing evidence that the CMC users met the cognitive criteria for a state of deindividuation. Nevertheless, CMC participants did not produce more negative behaviors than FTF participants, demonstrating that it is insufficient to attribute negative behavior solely to a deindividuated state. These results are discussed in light of classical deindividuation theory and are contrasted with predictions from the more recent social identity/deindividuation model.     

The Impact of Technology Availability and Structural Guidance on Group Development in Workgroups Using Computer-Mediated Communication

This article examines how technology and structural guidance influence the development of workgroups using computer-mediated communication (CMC). The results of two experiments support the notion that CMC workgroups develop over time in a similar manner to face-to-face groups. Technology availability had minimal, fleeting effects on group development. Structural guidance had a more pronounced effect, increasing feelings of belonging and goal commitment in newly formed groups, but lowering feelings of trust in maturing groups.     

What do students do in a F2F CSCL classroom? The optimization of multiple communications modes

This exploratory study analyzes how students use different communication modes to share information, negotiate meaning and construct knowledge in the process of doing a group learning activity in a Primary Grade 5 blended learning environment in Singapore. Small groups of students interacted face-to-face over a computer-mediated communication (CMC) technology called Group Scribbles (GS) to jointly complete a learning task. The lesson designers attempted to optimize the use of CMC technology and face-to-face (F2F) discussion in students’ collaborative learning, with the aim of harnessing the specific features of each medium. Building on notions from communication studies and from interaction analysis, we observed the construction and evolution of the interactions through analyzing the artifacts that were produced by a group of students – in verbal talk, gestures, and sketches drawn and text inscribed in GS. F2F and GS interactions intertwined to support collaborative learning. The findings from this study could inform design aspects concerning integrating and reinforcing the strengths of both communication modes when introducing computer-assisted collaborative learning (CSCL) in a F2F classroom.     

The influence of familiarity among group members,group atmosphere and assertiveness on uninhibited behavior through three different communication media

The study of the influence of new information technologies (NIT) on verbal communication has attracted attention from researchers. Results obtained in previous studies suggest that NIT communication media produce a deindividualization in group processes that enhances uninhibited behavior and flaming. However, identity theory emphasizes the role of social context, challenging the interpretation that features of the media are the main antecedent of this behavior. The aim of the present paper is threefold: (1) to empirically test whether there are significant differences in the frequency of uninhibited behavior in groups working under face-to-face, videoconference and computer-mediated communication; (2) to test whether familiarity among group members, group climate, assertiveness and their interactions significantly predict uninhibited behavior in groups, regardless of the communication media; and (3) to analyze whether communication media moderate the prediction of these variables on uninhibited behavior. Uninhibited behavior has been operationalized, distinguishing between informal speech and flaming. The experiment was carried out with 28 groups of five subjects each. Results show that informal speech and flaming present higher rates in computer mediated communication than in videoconference and face-to-face. Social familiarity among group members significantly predicts mild uninhibited behavior regardless of the medium, but does not account for flaming. Communication media moderate the prediction power of familiarity and its interaction with assertiveness and group climate on mild uninhibited behavior (informal speech). Results are discussed in relation to the alternative theories and models formulated.     

The relevance of communication media in conflict contexts and their effectiveness: A negotiation experiment

Conflict negotiation is a communication process in which participants exchange huge amounts of cognitive and emotional information interactively to achieve a mutually acceptable solution regarding previous inconsistency. The present paper approaches this issue from the perspective of intervention in emotional negotiation by examining the moderating effect of communication media on the relationships between conflict contexts and their effectiveness. Given the different effectiveness of emotional delivery between face-to-face communication and computer-mediated communication, we hypothesize that the choice of communication media will ultimately affect negotiation effectiveness. A negotiation experiment was designed to test our research hypotheses. We find that face-to-face communication functions effectively in the functional conflict context, whereas computer-mediated communication functions effectively in dysfunctional conflict context.     

Group processes in solving two problems: face-to-face and computer-mediated communication

In this study, an experiment on communication and problem solving in face-to-face communication and computermediated communication was conducted. The latter was performed in two variants; subjects writing under their own name or subjects writing anonymously. The problems were a Social Dilemma problem and a Criminal Puzzle problem. The theoretical starting point was if, and how, the communication form influences social relations, communication equality and communication processes. A qualitative analysis showed that different problems were related to different patterns of the variables studied. The computer-mediated communication solving the Criminal Puzzle problem induced relatively greater idea generation that was not responded to, while the face-toface communication was associated with relatively more answers. In the Social Dilemma, feedback was relatively more common in face-to-face communication than in computermediated communication. To 'give information about the game' was relatively more common in the anonymous computer-mediated communication than face-to-face situation, indicating that computer-mediated communication is associated with speaker generation of information, but less with responses to the interlocutor. There were no outcome differences or communication equality effects related to communication condition. These results point to the importance of the task related activities in the discussions rather than the importance of medium.