Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept.

Experiment 1 used the Implicit Association Test (IAT; A. G. Greenwald, D. E. McGhee, & J. L. K. Schwartz, 1998) to measure self-esteem by assessing automatic associations of self with positive or negative valence. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that two IAT measures defined a factor that was distinct from, but weakly correlated with, a factor defined by standard explicit (self-report) measures of self-esteem. Experiment 2 tested known-groups validity of two IAT gender self-concept measures. Compared with well-established explicit measures, the IAT measures revealed triple the difference in measured masculinity–femininity between men and women. Again, CFA revealed construct divergence between implicit and explicit measures. Experiment 3 assessed the self-esteem IAT's validity in predicting cognitive reactions to success and failure. High implicit self-esteem was associated in the predicted fashion with buffering against adverse effects of failure on two of four measures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Global self-esteem: Its relation to specific facets of self-concept and their importance.

Theory and common sense posit that the effect of a specific facet of self-concept on esteem will vary with the importance of the facet, but little support for this proposal was found in a study of late adolescents and young adults. Subjects, particularly those with high esteem, were more likely to have high self-concepts in facets they perceived to be more important, but their importance ratings did not contribute to the prediction of esteem. Unweighted averages of 12 distinct dimensions of self-concept correlated about .7 with Esteem, but weighting each facet by the importance assigned to it by the entire group, by diverse subgroups, or by each individual resulted in little or no improvement. Neither self-concept/importance interactions nor self-concept/importance discrepancies were able to explain much variance in Esteem beyond that which could be explained by specific facets of self-concept. Nevertheless, some support for the effect of importance was found for the Spiritual and Physical abilities facets, and these were the two facets for which the perceived importance was most variable. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Grade level differences in factors of self-esteem.

Investigated the construct validity of the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. Factor analyses were performed using approximately 1,500 students in public schools in each of Grades 4-8. 3 factors emerged in the grade-level analyses that were related to the Self subscale proposed by S. Coopersmith. 2 factors represented negative attitudes toward the self, while 1 factor represented positive attitudes. Items that loaded into these factors were moderately congruent with the subscale items. 2 factors emerged related to the Home subscale. Items that loaded into these factors were highly congruent with the subscale items. 2 factors expressing bipolar attitudes emerged that were related to the School subscale. The items that loaded into these factors were moderately congruent with the subscale items. One factor emerged that expressed positive attitudes toward the self derived from peers. This factor was related to the Peer subscale through a moderate amount of common items. Grade-level differences were observed in the comparative amount of variance accounted for by factors, as well as the occurrence of factors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept.

This theoretical integration of social psychology's main cognitive and affective constructs was shaped by 3 influences: (a) recent widespread interest in automatic and implicit cognition, (b) development of the Implicit Association Test (IAT; A. G. Greenwald, D. E. McGhee, & J. L. K. Schwartz, 1998), and (c) social psychology's consistency theories of the 1950s, especially F. Heider's (1958) balance theory. The balanced identity design is introduced as a method to test correlational predictions of the theory. Data obtained with this method revealed that predicted consistency patterns were strongly apparent in the data for implicit (IAT) measures but not in those for parallel explicit (self-report) measures, Two additional not-yet-tested predictions of the theory are described. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between level of self-esteem and suicidal ideation with stability of self-esteem as moderator.

131 undergraduate university students (aged 18-24 yrs) participated in a study of the relationship between suicidal ideation and level and (in)stability of self-esteem, while controlling for the possible effect of depression. Level of self-esteem and (in)stability of self-esteem, suicidal ideation, and depression were measured using M. Rosenberg's (1965) Self-Esteem Scale, the scale for Suicidal Ideation, and the Beck Depression Inventory (A. T. Beck et al., 1961), respectively. Results of correlation analyses and an analysis of covariance show that suicidal ideation was significantly related to level of self esteem, but not to (in)stability of self-esteem. An interaction effect shows that for individuals with high self-esteem, variation in self-esteem stability did not have a significant moderating influence, whereas for those with low self-esteem, stable self-esteem appeared to be a protective factor. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stability and level of self-esteem as predictors of anger arousal and hostility.

We examined stability of self-esteem and level of self-esteem as predictors of dispositional tendencies to experience anger and hostility. We reasoned that individuals with unstable high self-esteem would report especially high tendencies to experience anger and hostility, and that individuals with stable high self-esteem would report particularly low tendencies. We expected individuals with stable and unstable low self-esteem to fall between these two extremes. These predictions were derived from an analysis of anger and hostility that emphasized the instigating role of threats to self-esteem. Stability of self-esteem was assessed through multiple assessments of global self-esteem in naturalistic settings. Results revealed the predicted pattern for the tendency to experience anger and a "motor" component of hostility. The importance of considering both stability and level of self-esteem in analyses of anger and hostility is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Physical self-concept and self-esteem mediate cross-sectional relations of physical activity and sport participation with depression symptoms among adolescent girls.

The authors tested whether physical self-concept and self-esteem would mediate cross-sectional relations of physical activity and sport participation with depression symptoms among 1,250 girls in 12th grade. There was a strong positive relation between global physical self-concept and self-esteem and a moderate inverse relation between self-esteem and depression symptoms. Physical activity and sport participation each had an indirect, positive relation with global physical self-concept that was independent of objective measures of cardiorespiratory fitness and body fatness. These correlational findings provide initial evidence suggesting that physical activity and sport participation might reduce depression risk among adolescent girls by unique, positive influences on physical self-concept that operate independently of fitness, body mass index, and perceptions of sports competence, body fat, and appearance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-esteem and clarity of the self-concept.

This article examines the association between evaluative and knowledge components of the self. Four studies tested the hypothesis that the self-concepts of low-self-esteem (LSE) people are characterized by less clarity or certainty than those of high-self-esteem (HSE) people. LSE Ss exhibited less extremity and self-reported confidence when rating themselves on bipolar trait adjectives (Study 1), less temporal stability in their trait ratings over a 2-month interval (Study 2), less congruence between their self-concepts and their subsequent perceptions of situation-specific behavior and memory for prior behavior (Study 3), and less internal consistency, lower self-rated confidence, and longer reaction times when making me/not me responses to pairs of opposite traits (Study 4). Alternative accounts of the results and the implications of self-concept clarity for understanding the pervasive impact of self-esteem on behavior are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aspects of cortical organization related to the geometry of neurons with intra-cortical axons

Using the Golgi method, cells with intra-cortical axons in the visual cortex of young mice were classified according to defined geometrical axonal shapes. This study principally describes a computer technique and its application to the study of neuronal morphology. Neurons were converted in a sequence of three-coordinate points which were stored in digital form on magnetic tape. From the stored data and total real length in space of dendrites and axons was obtained and the results compared in two groups of mice raised under different conditions. Preliminary observations show short axonal lengths in mice raised in darkness. Using Eulerian coordinate transformations, reconstructions of individual neurons and of groups of several neurons and fibres were obtained by generating displays of different views after rotation around the horizontal axis. Reconstructed pictures were compared with their corresponding original drawings in order to describe particular aspects of cortical organization.     

Photographic self-concept of counselees.

11 college counseling center clients and 11 psychology students (controls) were asked to take or to have taken 12 photographs in reply to the question "Who are you?" Clients in comparison with controls presented significantly more photographs of the past and of their families but significantly fewer photographs of themselves, their activities, and their books. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A causal model approach to the symbolic interactionist view of the self-concept.

Examined the symbolic interactionist construct of the reflected self-concept using a causal model based on path analysis and multiple regression. 333 married couples, with husbands aged 20–88 yrs and wives aged 19–91 yrs were randomly selected and interviewed with a self-concept inventory. Measures of the reflected self were marriage partner's self-concept, partner's perception of spouse's evaluation (role taking), and spouse's actual evaluation. It is contended that this analysis was an advance beyond the traditional approach that simply tests for a relation between the self-concept and the actual and perceived evaluations of others. Use of a causal model accurately reflects the theoretical view of the self by emphasizing the process of role taking. Findings indicate that the actual evaluations by spouses did not have a direct effect on Ss' self-concepts but rather an indirect effect mediated via the Ss' perception of their spouses' evaluations of them. It is emphasized that an individual's perception of how he/she appears to others is the process whereby a self-concept becomes defined. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The stability of the self-concept in adolescence.

"A study of the stability of the self-concept over two years in adolescence resulted in the following conclusions:… Relative stability… was demonstrated… between Q sorts… . Subjects whose self-concept was negative at the first setting were significantly less stable in self-concept than subjects whose self-concept was positive… . Subjects who persisted in a negative self-concept over the two year period gave evidence of significantly more maladjustment." 16 refs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-advocacy and self-esteem.

Explored the utility of treating self-esteem as an attitude that might be vulnerable to the same kinds of experimental manipulations usually directed at more traditional, less consequential attitudinal issues. Within an attitudinal advocacy paradigm, 109 undergraduates wrote 3 essays either about their personality attributes or about social propositions. Half the Ss writing on each of these topics were told to advocate a positive position (i.e., self-laudatory or proposition supporting) in their essays. The remaining Ss, although induced to advocate positive positions, were led to believe that they could elect to write negative (self-deprecatory or issue-opposing) essays. As anticipated, Ss who wrote the self-laudatory essays subsequently rated themselves more favorably than did Ss who wrote in support of social propositions. The latter Ss showed a corresponding advocacy effect with regard to the social proposition that they had espoused. The manipulation of perceived choice did not influence the magnitude of the advocacy effect. The results are regarded as encouraging with respect to the application of laboratory-derived attitude change procedures to issues of high personal relevance and clinical importance. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender and self-esteem.

Where does self-esteem (SE) come from? Three experiments explored the idea that men's and women's SE arise, in part, from different sources. It was hypothesized that SE is related to successfully measuring up to culturally mandated, gender-appropriate norms—separation and independence for men and connection and interdependence for women. Results from Study 1 suggest that men's SE can be linked to an individuation process in which one's personal distinguishing achievements are emphasized. Results from Study 2 suggest that women's SE can be linked to a process in which connections and attachments to important others are emphasized. Study 3 demonstrates that failing to perform well on gender-appropriate tasks engendered a defensive, compensatory reaction, but only in Ss with high SE. These findings are discussed with regard to their implications for the structure and dynamics of the self. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Task ego-involvement and self-esteem as moderators of situationally devalued self-esteem.

Conducted 2 experiments to investigate the effects of situationally devalued self-esteem and 2 levels of task involvement on performance on a word-sorting task. In Exp I, 48 male undergraduates completed an 8-min pretest and were told either that they had done poorly or acceptably. Ss then completed a 35-min real test under high or low involvement conditions (which stressed or did not stress the importance of the task). In Exp II, 60 undergraduates completed the same tests but only self-esteem was manipulated. A chronic self-esteem measure derived from a self-assurance scale, was administered to all Ss (see record 1969-03188-001). Results indicate increased productivity in the high involvement and high self-esteem conditions, suggesting that protection of self-concept effects occurred (i.e., performance will be increased); however, productivity was not decreased in the low conditions, indicating a failure of self-consistency effects to emerge. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)