Forward-viewing CMUT arrays for medical imaging

This paper reports the design and testing of forward-viewing annular arrays fabricated using capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) technology. Recent research studies have shown that CMUTs have broad frequency bandwidth and high-transduction efficiency. One- and two-dimensional CMUT arrays of various sizes already have been fabricated, and their viability for medical imaging applications has been demonstrated. We fabricated 64-element, forward-viewing annular arrays using the standard CMUT fabrication process and carried out experiments to measure the operating frequency, bandwidth, and transmit/receive efficiency of the array elements. The annular array elements, designed for imaging applications in the 20 MHz range, had a resonance frequency of 13.5 MHz in air. The immersion pulse-echo data collected from a plane reflector showed that the devices operate in the 5-26 MHz range with a fractional bandwidth of 135%. The output pressure at the surface of the transducer was measured to be 24 kPa/V. These values translate into a dynamic range of 131.5 dB for 1-V excitation in 1-Hz bandwidth with a commercial low noise receiving circuitry. The designed, forward-viewing annular CMUT array is suitable for mounting on the front surface of a cylindrical catheter probe and can provide Doppler information for measurement of blood flow and guiding information for navigation through blood vessels in intravascular ultrasound imaging.     

Volumetric ultrasound imaging using 2-D CMUT arrays

Recently, capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs) have emerged as a candidate to overcome the difficulties in the realization of 2-D arrays for real-time 3-D imaging. In this paper, we present the first volumetric images obtained using a 2-D CMUT array. We have fabricated a 128 x 128-element 2-D CMUT array with through-wafer via interconnects and a 420-microm element pitch. As an experimental prototype, a 32 x 64-element portion of the 128 x 128-element array was diced and flip-chip bonded onto a glass fanout chip. This chip provides individual leads from a central 16 x 16-element portion of the array to surrounding bondpads. An 8 x 16-element portion of the array was used in the experiments along with a 128-channel data acquisition system. For imaging phantoms, we used a 2.37-mm diameter steel sphere located 10 mm from the array center and two 12-mm-thick Plexiglas plates located 20 mm and 60 mm from the array. A 4 x 4 group of elements in the middle of the 8 x 16-element array was used in transmit, and the remaining elements were used to receive the echo signals. The echo signal obtained from the spherical target presented a frequency spectrum centered at 4.37 MHz with a 100% fractional bandwidth, whereas the frequency spectrum for the echo signal from the parallel plate phantom was centered at 3.44 MHz with a 91% fractional bandwidth. The images were reconstructed by using RF beamforming and synthetic phased array approaches and visualized by surface rendering and multiplanar slicing techniques. The image of the spherical target has been used to approximate the point spread function of the system and is compared with theoretical expectations. This study experimentally demonstrates that 2-D CMUT arrays can be fabricated with high yield using silicon IC-fabrication processes, individual electrical connections can be provided using through-wafer vias, and flip-chip bonding can be used to integrate these dense 2-D arrays with electronic circuits for practical 3-D imaging applications.     

3-D ultrasound imaging using a forward-looking CMUT ring array for intravascular/intracardiac applications

Forward-viewing ring arrays can enable new applications in intravascular and intracardiac ultrasound. This work presents compelling, full-synthetic, phased-array volumetric images from a forward-viewing capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) ring array wire bonded to a custom integrated circuit front end. The CMUT ring array has a diameter of 2 mm and 64 elements each 100 microm x 100 microm in size. In conventional mode, echo signals received from a plane reflector at 5 mm had 70% fractional bandwidth around a center frequency of 8.3 MHz. In collapse mode, 69% fractional bandwidth is measured around 19 MHz. Measured signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the echo averaged 16 times was 29 dB for conventional operation and 35 dB for collapse mode. B-scans were generated of a target consisting of steel wires 0.3 mm in diameter to determine resolution performance. The 6 dB axial and lateral resolutions for the B-scan of the wire target are 189 microm and 0.112 radians for 8 MHz, and 78 microm and 0.051 radians for 19 MHz. A reduced firing set suitable for real-time, intravascular applications was generated and shown to produce acceptable images. Rendered three-dimensional (3-D) images of a Palmaz-Schatz stent also are shown, demonstrating that the imaging quality is sufficient for practical applications.     

Fabrication and characterization of transducer elements in two-dimensional arrays for medical ultrasound imaging

Some of the problems of developing a two-dimensional (2-D) transducer array for medical imaging are examined. The fabrication of a 2-D array material consisting of lead zirconate titanate (PZT) elements separated by epoxy is discussed. Ultrasound pulses and transmitted radiation patterns from individual elements in the arrays are measured. A diffraction theory for the continuous wave pressure field of a 2-D array element is generalized to include both electrical and acoustical cross-coupling between elements. This theory can be fit to model the measured radiation patterns of 2-D array elements, giving an indication of the level of cross-coupling in the array, and the velocity of the acoustic cross-coupling wave. Improvements in bandwidth and cross-coupling resulting from the inclusion of a front acoustic matching layer are demonstrated, and the effects of including a lossy backing material on the array are discussed. A broadband electrical matching network is described, and pulse-echo waveforms and insertion loss from a 2-D array element are measured.     

Integration of 2D CMUT arrays with front-end electronics for volumetric ultrasound imaging

For three-dimensional (3D) ultrasound imaging, connecting elements of a two-dimensional (2D) transducer array to the imaging system's front-end electronics is a challenge because of the large number of array elements and the small element size. To compactly connect the transducer array with electronics, we flip-chip bond a 2D 16 x 16-element capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) array to a custom-designed integrated circuit (IC). Through-wafer interconnects are used to connect the CMUT elements on the top side of the array with flip-chip bond pads on the back side. The IC provides a 25-V pulser and a transimpedance preamplifier to each element of the array. For each of three characterized devices, the element yield is excellent (99 to 100% of the elements are functional). Center frequencies range from 2.6 MHz to 5.1 MHz. For pulse echo operation, the average - 6-dB fractional bandwidth is as high as 125%. Transmit pressures normalized to the face of the transducer are as high as 339 kPa and input-referred receiver noise is typically 1.2 to 2.1 mPa/pHz. The flip-chip bonded devices were used to acquire 3D synthetic aperture images of a wire-target phantom. Combining the transducer array and IC, as shown in this paper, allows for better utilization of large arrays, improves receive sensitivity, and may lead to new imaging techniques that depend on transducer arrays that are closely coupled to IC electronics.     

Finite element modeling and experimental characterization of crosstalk in 1-D CMUT arrays

Crosstalk is the coupling of energy between the elements of an ultrasonic transducer array. This coupling degrades the performance of transducers in applications such as medical imaging and therapeutics. In this paper, we present an experimental demonstration of guided interface waves in capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs). We compare the experimental results to finite element calculations using a commercial package (LS-DYNA) for a 1-D CMUT array operating in the conventional and collapsed modes. An element in the middle of the array was excited with a unipolar voltage pulse, and the displacements were measured using a laser interferometer along the center line of the array elements immersed in soybean oil. We repeated the measurements for an identical CMUT array covered with a 4.5-microm polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) layer. The main crosstalk mechanism is the dispersive guided modes propagating in the fluid-solid interface. Although the transmitter element had a center frequency of 5.8 MHz with a 130% fractional bandwidth in the conventional operation, the dispersive guided mode was observed with the maximum amplitude at a frequency of 2.1 MHz, and had a cut-off frequency of 4 MHz. In the collapsed operation, the dispersive guided mode was observed with the maximum amplitude at a frequency of 4.0 MHz, and had a cut-off frequency of 10 MHz. Crosstalk level was lower in the collapsed operation (-39 dB) than in the conventional operation (-24.4 dB). The coverage of the PDMS did not significantly affect the crosstalk level, but reduced the phase velocity for both operation modes. Lamb wave modes, A0 and S0, were also observed with crosstalk levels of -40 dB and -65 dB, respectively. We observed excellent agreement between the finite element and the experimental results.     

Thermal-mechanical-noise-based CMUT characterization and sensing

When capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs) are monolithically integrated with custom-designed low-noise electronics, the output noise of the system can be dominated by the CMUT thermal-mechanical noise both in air and in immersion even for devices with low capacitance. Because the thermal-mechanical noise can be related to the electrical admittance of the CMUTs, this provides an effective means of device characterization. This approach yields a novel method to test the functionality and uniformity of CMUT arrays and the integrated electronics when a direct connection to CMUT array element terminals is not available. Because these measurements can be performed in air at the wafer level, the approach is suitable for batch manufacturing and testing. We demonstrate this method on the elements of an 800-μm-diameter CMUT-on-CMOS array designed for intravascular imaging in the 10 to 20 MHz range. Noise measurements in air show the expected resonance behavior and spring softening effects. Noise measurements in immersion for the same array provide useful information on both the acoustic cross talk and radiation properties of the CMUT array elements. The good agreement between a CMUT model based on finite difference and boundary element methods and the noise measurements validates the model and indicates that the output noise is indeed dominated by thermal-mechanical noise. The measurement method can be exploited to implement CMUT-based passive sensors to measure immersion medium properties, or other parameters affecting the electro-mechanics of the CMUT structure.     

Design of a front-end integrated circuit for 3D acoustic imaging using 2D CMUT arrays

Integration of front-end electronics with 2D capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) arrays has been a challenging issue due to the small element size and large channel count. We present design and verification of a front-end drive-readout integrated circuit for 3D ultrasonic imaging using 2D CMUT arrays. The circuit cell dedicated to a single CMUT array element consists of a high-voltage pulser and a low-noise readout amplifier. To analyze the circuit cell together with the CMUT element, we developed an electrical CMUT model with parameters derived through finite element analysis, and performed both the pre- and postlayout verification. An experimental chip consisting of 4 X 4 array of the designed circuit cells, each cell occupying a 200 X 200 microm2 area, was formed for the initial test studies and scheduled for fabrication in 0.8 microm, 50 V CMOS technology. The designed circuit is suitable for integration with CMUT arrays through flip-chip bonding and the CMUT-on-CMOS process.     

Element shape design of 2-D CMUT arrays for reducing grating lobes

Fully populated two-dimensional (2-D) arrays are needed to produce high quality ultrasonic volumetric images for real-time applications, but they present many challenges for their physical realization because of the large number of elements. In fact, lambda/2 and lambda minimum spacing between elements is required, respectively, for pyramidal and rectilinear scanning in order to avoid unwanted grating lobes (GLs). However, in past years, capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) technology has made possible the production of arrays with large flexibility in element shape and size. In this paper, this property is analyzed, and a new element shape, based on the concept of spatial interpenetration of adjacent elements, is proposed in order to design fully populated 2-D CMUT arrays with a low number of elements, whose beam characteristics are valid for volumetric imaging. Through the use of simulations, it is demonstrated that arrays with pitch larger than lambda (up to 3lambda) used for rectilinear scanning, have notably lower GLs than the equivalent standard arrays designed according to the classical squared element shape. As consequence, the proposed geometry has the advantage of reducing the number of elements (up to a factor of 9) and of enlarging the element size, implying an increase of the SNR relative to the single element. When beam steering is required, arrays can be designed with pitch equal to lambda, reducing the number of elements by a factor of 4 if the maximum steering angle is limited to +/-15 degrees .     

Carbon-ring microelectrode arrays for electrochemical imaging of single cell exocytosis: fabrication and characterization

Fabrication of carbon microelectrode arrays, with up to 15 electrodes in total tips as small as 10-50 μm, is presented. The support structures of microelectrodes were obtained by pulling multiple quartz capillaries together to form hollow capillary arrays before carbon deposition. Carbon ring microelectrodes were deposited by pyrolysis of acetylene in the lumen of these quartz capillary arrays. Each carbon deposited array tip was filled with epoxy, followed by beveling of the tip of the array to form a deposited carbon-ring microelectrode array (CRMA). Both the number of the microelectrodes in the array and the tip size are independently tunable. These CRMAs have been characterized using scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and electrogenerated chemiluminescence. Additionally, the electrochemical properties were investigated with steady-state voltammetry. In order to demonstrate the utility of these fabricated microelectrodes in neurochemistry, CRMAs containing eight microring electrodes were used for electrochemical monitoring of exocytotic events from single PC12 cells. Subcellular temporal heterogeneities in exocytosis (i.e. cold spots vs hot spots) were successfully detected with the CRMAs.     

Ferroelectric transducer arrays for transdermal insulin delivery

The goal of this research was the development of a portable therapeutic device for the treatment of diabetes. A 3×3 cymbal array has been successfully tested in noninvasive insulin delivery experiments. The cymbal is a composite flextensional transducer constructed from a poled PZT ceramic and shaped metal endcaps that amplify the transducer motions by two orders of magnitude. Nine cymbals are wired in parallel and potted in polyurethane to form the flat panel arrays. When driven near resonance (20 kHz), the array generated a low intensity acoustic beam of 100 mW/cm². Animal experiments on hyperglycemic rats and rabbits demonstrated the ultrasonic enhancement of transdermal insulin delivery.     

Microfabrication of electrode patterns for high-frequency ultrasound transducer arrays

High-frequency ultrasound is needed for medical imaging with high spatial resolution. A key issue in the development of ultrasound imaging arrays to operate at high frequencies (?30 MHz) is the need for photolithographic patterning of array electrodes. To achieve this directly on 1-3 piezocomposite, the material requires not only planar, parallel, and smooth surfaces, but also an epoxy composite filler that is resistant to chemicals, heat, and vacuum. This paper reports, first, on the surface finishing of 1-3 piezocomposite materials by lapping and polishing. Excellent surface flatness has been obtained, with an average surface roughness of materials as low as 3 nm and step heights between ceramic/polymer of ～80 nm. Subsequently, high-frequency array elements were patterned directly on top of these surfaces using a photolithography process. A 30-MHz linear array electrode pattern with 50-μm element pitch has been patterned on the lapped and polished surface of a high-frequency 1-3 piezocomposite. Excellent electrode edge definition and electrical contact to the composite were obtained. The composite has been lapped to a final thickness of ～55 μm. Good adhesion of electrodes on the piezocomposite has been achieved and electrical impedance measurements have demonstrated their basic functionality. The array was then packaged, and acoustic pulse-echo measurements were performed. These results demonstrate that direct patterning of electrodes by photolithography on 1-3 piezocomposite is feasible for fabrication of high-frequency ultrasound arrays. Furthermore, this method is more conducive to mass production than other reported array fabrication techniques.     

Ultrasonic nondiffracting transducer for medical imaging

The nondiffracting J(0) Bessel beam is evaluated, and its application to medical imaging is suggested. Computer simulations and experimental results for a ten-ring annular Bessel shaded transducer are described. Both continuous-wave (CW) and pulse-wave (PW) excitations are shown and compared to conventional Gaussian beams. The nondiffracting beam has about 1.27-nm radius main lobe with a 20-cm depth of field compared to the Gaussian transducer of the same size with a 1.27-mm radius main lobe at a focus of 12 cm and 2x4-cm depth of field. The side lobes of the nondiffracting beam are the same as the J(0) Bessel function. The effects of heterogeneity due to tissue on the nondiffracting beam and on the focused Gaussian beam are also reported.     

Microlens arrays for integral imaging system

When designing a system capable of capturing and displaying 3D moving images in real time by the integral imaging (II) method, one challenge is to eliminate pseudoscopic images. To overcome this problem, we propose a simple system with an array of three convex lenses. First, the lateral magnification of the elemental optics and the expansion of an elemental image is described by geometrical optics, confirming that the elemental optics satisfies the conditions under which pseudoscopic images can be avoided. In using the II method, adjacent elemental images must not overlap, a condition also satisfied by the proposed optical system. Next, an experiment carried out to acquire and display 3D images is described. The real-time system we have constructed comprises an elemental optics array with 54 H x 59 V elements, a CCD camera to capture a group of elemental images created by the lens array, and a liquid crystal panel to display these images. The results of the experiment confirm that the system produces orthoscopic images in real time, and thus is effective for real-time application of the II method.     

DNA-templated protein arrays for single-molecule imaging

Single-particle electron cryomicroscopy permits structural characterization of noncrystalline protein samples, but throughput is limited by problems associated with sample preparation and image processing. Three-dimensional density maps are reconstructed from high resolution but noisy images of individual molecules. We show that self-assembled DNA nanoaffinity templates can create dense, nonoverlapping arrays of protein molecules, greatly facilitating data collection. We demonstrate this technique using a G-protein-coupled membrane receptor, a soluble G-protein, and a signaling complex of both molecules.     

Surface micromachined capacitive ultrasonic transducer for underwater imaging

Abstract

This study presents the primary design, fabrication process and device measurement of a Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasonic Transducer (CMUT) for underwater acoustic imaging. Theoretical analysis and computer simulations of the CMUT are performed. The CMUT fabrication uses the full surface micromachining techniques of the Micro Electro Mechanical System (MEMS). These techniques are Low Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition (LPCVD), photolithography, Reactive Ion Etching System (RIE) dry etching, sacrificial layer wet etching, metal thermal evaporation coating and Plasma‐Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD). Several important issues regarding fabrication are discussed. The measured input impedance of the CMUT is in agreement with the theoretical prediction. The received signal has a 35 dB signal‐to‐noise ratio indicating that practical applications of the immersion CMUT are feasible and that the radiation pattern measurement of the CMUT array has good beamforming characteristics for underwater imaging.     

Elevation performance of 1.25D and 1.5D transducer arrays

Present 1D phased array probes have outstanding lateral and axial resolution, but their elevation performance is determined by a fixed aperture focused at a fixed range. Multi-row array transducers can provide significantly improved elevation performance in return for “modest” increases in probe and system complexity. Time domain simulations of elevation beam profiles are used to compare several types of multi-row probes. The elevation aperture of a 1.25D probe increases with range, but the elevation focusing of that aperture is static and determined principally by a mechanical lens with a fixed focus (or foci). 1.25D probes can provide substantially better near- and far-field slice thickness performance than 1D probes and require no additional system beamformer channels. 1.5D, probes use additional beamformer channels to provide dynamic focusing and apodization in elevation. 1.5D probes can provide detail resolution comparable to, and contrast resolution substantially better than, 1.25D probes, particularly in the mid- and far-field. Further increases in system channel count allow the use of 1.75D and 2D arrays for adaptive acoustics and two-dimensional beam steering. Significant improvements in clinical image quality can be expected as multi-row probes become increasingly available in the marketplace     

Crosstalk reduction with a micromachined diaphragm structure for integrated ultrasound transducer arrays

Crosstalk reduction in a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) integrated ultrasound transducer array with a micromachined diaphragm structure is reported. Three sets of linear arrays with nine 1 mmx1 mm elements on dielectric diaphragms have been made. They were fabricated with (1) a solid substrate, (2) a single large diaphragm window underneath the entire array, and (3) a small diaphragm window (SW) for each array element. To estimate crosstalk and fringe field effects in each array, the authors measured each array's angular response in the far field of an unfocused source transducer. A Fourier transform analysis was then performed on the measured data to obtain each array's directivity pattern, which in turn was fitted to theoretical curves based on a crosstalk model. Crosstalk-related parameters have been extracted from curve-fitting and their values show that the array with the SW structure for each element has the least electrical and acoustical crosstalk and fringe field effects.     

Focused high frequency needle transducer for ultrasonic imaging and trapping

A miniature focused needle transducer (<1?mm) was fabricated using the press-focusing technique. The measured pulse-echo waveform showed the transducer had center frequency of 57.5 MHz with 54% bandwidth and 14?dB insertion loss. To evaluate the performance of this type of transducer, invitro ultrasonic biomicroscopy imaging on the rabbit eye was obtained. Moreover, a single beam acoustic trapping experiment was performed using this transducer. Trapping of targeted particle size smaller than the ultrasonic wavelength was observed. Potential applications of these devices include minimally invasive measurements of retinal blood flow and single beam acoustic trapping of microparticles.     

Two-dimensional ultrasound receive array using an angle-tuned Fabry-Perot polymer film sensor for transducer field characterization and transmission ultrasound imaging

A 2-D optical ultrasound receive array has been investigated. The transduction mechanism is based upon the detection of acoustically induced changes in the optical thickness of a thin polymer film acting as a Fabry-Perot sensing interferometer (FPI). By illuminating the sensor with a large-area laser beam and mechanically scanning a photodiode across the reflected output beam, while using a novel angle-tuned phase bias control system to optimally set the FPI working point, a notional 2-D ultrasound array was synthesized. To demonstrate the concept, 1-D and 2-D ultrasound field distributions produced by planar 3.5-MHz and focused 5-MHz PZT ultrasound transducers were mapped. The system was also evaluated by performing transmission ultrasound imaging of a spatially calibrated target. The "array" aperture, defined by the dimensions of the incident optical field, was elliptical, of dimensions 16 x 12 mm and spatially sampled in steps of 0.1 mm or 0.2 mm. Element sizes, defined by the photodiode aperture, of 0.8, 0.4, and 0.2 mm were variously used for these experiments. Two types of sensor were evaluated. One was a discrete 75-microm-thick polyethylene terephthalate FPI bonded to a polymer backing stub which had a wideband peak noise-equivalent pressure of 6.5 kPa and an acoustic bandwidth 12 MHz. The other was a 40-microm Parylene film FPI which was directly vacuum-deposited onto a glass backing stub and had an NEP of 8 kPa and an acoustic bandwidth of 17.5 MHz. It is considered that this approach offers an alternative to piezoelectric ultrasound arrays for transducer field characterization, transmission medical and industrial ultrasound imaging, biomedical photoacoustic imaging, and ultrasonic nondestructive testing.