Personality and smoking status: a longitudinal analysis.

We attempted to clarify the strength and nature of the association between personality and smoking status in early and middle adulthood, using a longitudinal study design. Data from the Medical Research Council National Survey of Health and Development, based on a stratified sample of all single, legitimate births occurring in England, Wales, and Scotland in one week of March 1946 (N = 5,362), were analyzed using generalized estimating equations methods to account for the correlation between the smoking status variables for the same individual over time. The unadjusted estimates indicated that the odds of being a current smoker increased with higher personality score for both extraversion (p<.0001) and neuroticism (p<.0001) traits. Sex was significantly associated with being a current smoker (p<.0001), with males more likely than females to be current smokers. Current smoking decreased with increasing age (p<.0001). These relationships were maintained in the fully adjusted model. These data indicate that both higher levels of extraversion and higher levels of neuroticism, as measured at age 16, are independently associated with an increased likelihood of subsequently being a current smoker rather than a nonsmoker at all time points, although the observed effect sizes were small. Males also were more likely than females to be current smokers, and increasing age reduced the likelihood of being a current smoker, which is consistent with an attempt by a subset of smokers in the cohort to subsequently stop smoking.     

Occasional tobacco use among young adult women: a longitudinal analysis of smoking transitions

Objective

To describe prospective transitions in smoking among young adult women who were occasional smokers, and the factors associated with these transitions, by comparing sociodemographic, lifestyle and psychosocial characteristics of those who changed from occasional smoking to daily smoking, non‐daily smoking or non‐smoking.

Design

Longitudinal study with mailed questionnaires.

Participants/setting

Women aged 18–23 years in 1996 were randomly selected from the Medicare Australia database, which provides the most complete list of people in Australia.

Main outcome measures

Self‐reported smoking status at survey 1 (1996), survey 2 (2000) and survey 3 (2003), for 7510 participants who took part in all three surveys and who had complete data on smoking at survey 1.

Results

At survey 1, 28% (n = 2120) of all respondents reported smoking. Among the smokers, 39% (n = 829) were occasional smokers. Of these occasional smokers, 18% changed to daily smoking at survey 2 and remained daily smokers at survey 3; 12% reported non‐daily smoking at surveys 2 and 3; 36% stopped smoking and remained non‐smokers; and 33% moved between daily, non‐daily and non‐smoking over surveys 2 and 3. Over the whole 7‐year period, approximately half stopped smoking, one‐quarter changed to daily smoking and the remainder reported non‐daily smoking. Multivariate analysis identified that a history of daily smoking for ⩾6 months at baseline predicted reversion to daily smoking at follow‐up. Being single and using illicit drugs were also associated with change to daily or non‐daily smoking, whereas alcohol consumption was associated with non‐daily smoking only. Compared with stopping smoking, the change to daily smoking was significantly associated with having intermediate educational qualifications. No significant associations with depression and perceived stress were observed in the multivariate analysis.

Conclusions

Interventions to reduce the prevalence of smoking among young women need to take account of occasional smokers, who made up 39% of all smokers in this study. Targeted interventions to prevent the escalation to daily smoking and to promote cessation should allow for the social context of smoking with alcohol and other drugs, and social and environmental influences in vocational education and occupational settings.The transition to young adulthood is a critical period in establishing patterns of tobacco use, with the prevalence of smoking increasing through to the mid‐1920s.^1,2 It is a time when there are opportunities to prevent smoking and to promote cessation among those who may be amenable to quitting before they become committed smokers.³ The tobacco industry also sees the passage to young adulthood as an opportune time—but for the adoption and consolidation of smoking habits.⁴Among adolescents and young adults, occasional smoking is often regarded as a transitional, experimental phase preceding daily smoking, and rates of occasional smoking are generally higher among younger adults than among older adults.^5,6,7 Occasional smoking in late adolescence has been associated with an eightfold increase in the probability of becoming a daily smoker after 3 years.⁸A number of longitudinal studies have tracked changes in smoking behaviour among occasional smokers over periods of up to 2 years.^3,5,7,9 These studies, which have mostly focused on adolescents or older adults, showed that up to one‐quarter of baseline occasional smokers became daily smokers in the follow‐up periods. Furthermore, a substantial proportion (>40%) of occasional smokers continue to smoke occasionally, while around one‐third stop smoking.^3,5,9 Studies on college students have found that over the course of 4 years, up to 20% of baseline occasional smokers became daily smokers.^10,11Little is known about what differentiates occasional smokers who become daily smokers from those who continue to smoke occasionally and from those who stop smoking. In a study of 45–69‐year‐old smokers in Sweden, Lindstrom et al⁷ examined the sociodemographic and psychosocial characteristics of baseline occasional smokers who became daily smokers, who remained occasional smokers or who stopped smoking at the 1 year follow‐up. Those who stopped or remained occasional smokers were younger, unmarried, highly educated and were snuff consumers to a greater extent than the reference population (baseline daily smokers, ex smokers and never smokers), and those who became daily smokers had poorer psychosocial resources.⁷ A study examining changes in occasional smoking among college students found that positive beliefs about the functional value of smoking and the use of smoking to control negative effects predicted a change to daily smoking.¹¹This paper focuses on the longitudinal patterns of tobacco use among women who were occasional smokers in early adulthood. In addition to the well‐established health risks of smoking, women who smoke are also at risk of decreased fertility, increased risk of complications during pregnancy, miscarriage, stillbirth and neonatal deaths, and lower birth weight babies.¹²Data from a large, prospective, population‐based study were used to describe patterns of smoking behaviour among baseline occasional smokers over a 7‐year period. Our method provided an opportunity to examine the characteristics of young women who progressed from occasional smoking to daily smoking, those who continued occasional tobacco use and those who stopped smoking.     

School smoking policies and smoking prevalence among adolescents: multilevel analysis of cross-sectional data from Wales

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between school smoking policies and smoking prevalence among pupils. DESIGN: Multilevel analysis of cross-sectional data from surveys of schools and pupils. SETTING: 55 secondary schools in Wales. SUBJECTS: 55 teachers and 1375 pupils in year 11 (aged 15-16). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Self-reported smoking behaviour. RESULTS: The prevalence of daily smoking in schools with a written policy on smoking for pupils, teachers, and other adults, with no pupils or teachers allowed to smoke anywhere on the school premises, was 9.5% (95% confidence interval (CI) 6.1% to 12.9%). In schools with no policy on pupils' or teachers' smoking, 30.1% (95% CI 23.6% to 36.6%) of pupils reported daily smoking. In schools with an intermediate level of smoking policy, 21.0% (95% CI 17.8% to 24.2%) smoked every day. School smoking policy was associated with school level variation in daily smoking (p = 0.002). In multilevel analysis, after adjusting for pupils' sex, parents' and best friends' smoking status, parental expectations, and alienation from school, there was less unexplained school level variation, but school smoking policy remained significant (p = 0.041). The association of smoking policy with weekly smoking was weaker than for daily smoking, and not significant after adjustment for pupil level variables. Both daily and weekly smoking prevalence were lower in schools where pupils' smoking restrictions were always enforced. Enforcement of teacher smoking restrictions was not significantly associated with pupils' smoking. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates an association between policy strength, policy enforcement, and the prevalence of smoking among pupils, after having adjusted for pupil level characteristics. These findings suggest that the wider introduction of comprehensive school smoking policies may help reduce teenage smoking.     

Assessment of parents' smoking behaviors at a pediatric emergency department.

The pediatric emergency department is an important source of treatment for children with complaints related to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) and may provide a teachable moment to address parent smoking. Parents who smoke were recruited from a pediatric emergency department waiting room and completed an interview assessment used to develop intervention messages. Of the 715 parents in the final sample, 77% were women, 60% White, and 60% low income (相似文献   

Seasonal variations in the initiation of smoking among adolescents.

Numerous studies have identified a variety of reasons that youths give for starting smoking. Few efforts have been made, however, to identify seasonal variations in initiation. This study was an attempt to fill that void. We examined data from 342 youths participating in a mandated smoking education and cessation program in Texas. Data were collected based on responses to questions in participant workbooks, including an item asking participants about the month in which they started smoking. A total of 47% of the participants indicated that they started smoking in May through August (chi2 = 91.42, df = 3). Post-hoc analyses indicated that significantly more youths than expected began smoking in May and June, whereas significantly fewer youths than expected began smoking in September and November. Unsupervised time out of school during the first months of summer vacation is a period of increased danger for smoking initiation. The significantly lower rates during September seem to be related to the beginning of school.     

Association between cigarette smoking and C-reactive protein in a representative, population-based sample of adolescents.

Although related to inflammatory markers in adults, little is known about the association between cigarette smoking and C-reactive protein (CRP) in adolescent smokers. We examined the association between high-sensitivity CRP (hs-CRP) concentrations and smoking in youth. We used data from a cross-sectional, province-wide survey of a representative sample of youth conducted in Quebec, Canada, in 1999. Data were collected in self-report questionnaires completed by participants and their parents. Participants provided a fasting blood sample, and anthropometric measures were undertaken by trained technicians. The present analysis pertains to 1,501 adolescents aged 13 and 16 years who completed questionnaires and for whom blood samples were available. The independent association between a six-category indicator of smoking status and elevated hs-CRP, defined as a value at least in the 90th percentile of the age- and sex-specific CRP distribution, was assessed in multiple logistic regression analyses controlling for potential confounders. Relative to never-smokers, the odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) for puffers (i.e., never smoked a whole cigarette), those who smoked but not in the past month, light past-month smokers, moderate past-month smokers, and heavy past-month smokers were 1.04 (0.55-1.98), 1.76 (1.06-2.94), 1.39 (0.70-2.76), 2.07 (0.96-4.42), and 2.40 (1.18-4.88), respectively. Our data suggest a positive association between smoking status and elevated CRP in adolescents, and in particular among heavier past-month smokers. Damage related to cigarette smoking may begin soon after tobacco use initiation, reinforcing the preventive message that no level of smoking is safe in youth.     

Exposure to cigarette promotions and smoking uptake in adolescents: evidence of a dose-response relation

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether a dose-response relation exists between the number of cigarette promotional items (CPIs) owned by an adolescent, and smoking behaviour. DESIGN AND SETTING: Voluntary, self administered survey of 1265 sixth through to 12th grade students (ages 10-19 years), representing 79-95% of all students attending five rural New Hampshire and Vermont public (state funded) schools in October 1996. The association between the number of CPIs owned by students and smoking behaviour was examined using multivariate regression methods. OUTCOME MEASURES: Adjusted odds of being a smoker (>/= 100 cigarettes lifetime) and, among never and experimental smokers, adjusted cumulative odds of having higher levels on a smoking uptake index given the number of CPIs owned. RESULTS: One third of students owned a CPI (n = 406). Among owners, 211 owned one, 82 owned two, 57 owned three, 24 owned four, 23 owned five, and 7 students owned six CPIs. The number of CPIs owned by students was not associated with grade in school but was significantly higher in males, those with poorer school performance, those who perceived high prevalence of peer smoking, and those with higher exposure to peer and family smoking. The more items a student owned, the greater the chances of being a smoker. For example, smoking prevalence was 11.2% for those not owning a CPI, 41.5% for those owning two, 58.5% for those owning four, and 71.4% for those owning six CPIs. The dose-response relation remained after controlling for confounding; compared with those who did not own a CPI, the likelihood of being a smoker was significantly higher for those who owned one CPI, with an adjusted odds ratio (OR) of 2.7 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.7 to 4.1); OR was 3.4 (95% CI 1.9 to 5.9) for those owning two CPIs, and 8.4 (95% CI 5.0 to 14.2) for those owning three or more CPIs. After excluding smokers, there was a crude dose-response association between CPI ownership and higher rates of experimentation with cigarettes among sixth to ninth graders (ages 11-15 years) only (n = 543). After controlling for confounding influences, the dose-response relation remained, with the likelihood of being higher on the smoking uptake index rising with the number of CPIs owned: one CPI, adjusted cumulative OR 1.7 (95% CI 1.1 to 2.60); two CPIs, OR 2.5 (95% CI 1.2 to 5.1); and three or more CPIs, OR 4.8 (95% CI 1.9 to 12.2). CONCLUSIONS: This study offers evidence of a dose-response relation between the number of CPIs owned by adolescents and higher likelihood of experimental and established smoking. The dose-response relation persists after controlling for confounding influences. These data provide further support of a causal relation between tobacco promotional campaigns and smoking behaviour among adolescents.     

Cigarette smoking and quitting behaviors among unemployed adults in the United States.

Little is known about factors associated with smoking among the unemployed. This study estimated the prevalence of smoking and examined sociodemographic factors associated with current, former, and successful quitting among unemployed adults aged 18-64. Cross-sectional data on 13,480 participants in the 1998-1999 and 2001-2002 Tobacco Use Supplements to the Current Population Surveys were analyzed. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to examine factors associated with study outcomes (current vs. never, former vs. current, successful quitter vs. other former smoker). Among the unemployed, 35% were current smokers and 13% were former smokers. Of the former smokers, 81% quit successfully for at least 12 months. Participants with family incomes of less than US$25,000 were more likely than those with incomes of $50,000 or more to currently smoke (OR=2.13, 95% CI=1.85-2.46). Service workers and blue-collar workers were less likely than white-collar workers to report former smoking. Participants unemployed for 6 months or more were twice as likely as those unemployed for less than 6 months to quit successfully (OR=2.05, 95% CI=1.07-3.95). Unemployed blue-collar workers had a greater odds ratio of successfully quitting than white-collar workers (OR=1.83, 95% CI=1.17-2.87). Smoking rates were high among the unemployed, and quitting behaviors varied by sociodemographic factors and length of unemployment. Studies are needed to examine the feasibility of cessation interventions for the unemployed.     

Determinants of smoking behaviour among adolescents in Semarang, Indonesia.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the smoking prevalence and to examine the determinants of smoking behaviour among male adolescents in Semarang, Indonesia. DESIGN: A random sample of schools in Semarang (population 1.5 million) was obtained using a stratified sampling procedure (strata based on type of school and district). A total of 149 schools were selected (response rate 72%). Within the schools 186 classes were selected, targeting the 11, 13, 15, and 17 year olds. An anonymous, self administered questionnaire was filled in by all students present at the day of the survey (total sample size 6276). OUTCOME MEASURES: Smoking prevalence, exposure to family and peer smoking, and other variables that may be related to smoking. Logistic regression was used to examine the determinants of smoking behaviour. Only male students were included in the analysis. RESULTS: Smoking increased dramatically between the ages of 11 and 17, from 8.2% to 38.7%. The variance explained by the regression model increased from 19.8% for 11 year olds to 53% for 17 year olds. The smoking behaviour of best friends was the most powerful determinant of smoking, and this was consistent across the age groups. Best friends' attitudes towards smoking and older brothers' smoking behaviour were also important determinants of smoking. CONCLUSIONS: Smoking prevalence among male adolescents in Semarang, Indonesia is high. Effective smoking prevention programmes should take into account the dominant influence of peers in the onset and maintenance of smoking behaviour. In general, school related items had a less important role in predicting smoking behaviour than expected.     

Association of post-treatment smoking change with future smoking and cessation efforts among adolescents with psychiatric comorbidity.

Little is known about how initial change following a smoking intervention relates to longer-term smoking outcomes among adolescent smokers with psychiatric comorbidity. The present study investigated this relationship among psychiatrically hospitalized adolescents (N = 183) who participated in a controlled trial comparing motivational interviewing to brief advice. Quit attempters (n = 37), reducers (n = 45), and maintainers (n = 101) were assembled based on, respectively, having made a quit attempt, having reduced smoking by at least 50%, and having reduced smoking by less than 50% in the first week after hospital discharge. Hierarchical linear models and generalized estimating equations were conducted to test group differences in average number of cigarettes per smoking day and odds of making a quit attempt during subsequent weeks of a 12-month continuous follow-up, and in cotinine-verified abstinence rates at 1, 6, and 12 months posthospitalization. Baseline smoking levels and presence of a substance use disorder or anxiety disorder were predictive of outcomes. After controlling for covariates, we found that quit attempters smoked less during follow-up than did the other change groups and that reducers smoked less than maintainers. Quit attempters evidenced a higher percentage of quit attempts during follow-up than did the other change groups. Reducers had a greater average percentage of quit attempts during follow-up than did maintainers. However, groups did not differ on cotinine-verified abstinence rates across the follow-up period. Findings have implications for initial post-treatment change as it relates to subsequent smoking and cessation outcomes among adolescent smokers at especially high risk for smoking persistence.     

Ethnic differences among adolescents seeking smoking cessation treatment: a structural analysis of responses on the Fagerstr?m Test for Nicotine Dependence.

Features of tobacco dependence vary by ethnicity, which could be partially due to measurement bias inherent in instruments that assess nicotine dependence. This study compared responses on the Fagerstr?m Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND) by African American adolescents (n = 478) with those of White adolescents (n = 661) seeking smoking cessation treatment. We conducted item-by-item comparisons by ethnicity for the six questions composing the FTND and confirmatory factor analyses and multiple indicators-multiple causes (MIMIC) modeling to test the hypothesis of measurement invariance of the FTND by ethnicity. Study participants (N = 1,139) were daily smokers of average age 15.4 years (SD = 1.3); 42.0% were African American and 61.5% female. White adolescents' pattern of responses to the FTND indicated a greater degree of dependence; these differences were statistically significant for five of the six items. The FTND exhibited a unidimensional structure with similar factor loadings in both White and African American adolescents. However, MIMIC modeling indicated differential reporting for three out of six items, suggesting that the FTND may not measure nicotine dependence equivalently for White and African American youth.     

Cigarette and waterpipe smoking among Lebanese adolescents, a cross-sectional study, 2003-2004.

Waterpipe or "argileh" is a form of smoking other than cigarettes that is currently spreading among people of all ages. The objective of the present study was to assess tobacco smoking practices (waterpipe and/or cigarette) among public and private adolescent school students in Beirut, Lebanon. A sample of 2,443 students selected from 10 private and 3 public schools with intermediate/secondary classes filled out a self-administered anonymous questionnaire that inquired about sociodemographic characteristics, and behavior about tobacco smoking. Binary analysis was performed as well as three regression models for the relationship between exclusive cigarettes smoking, exclusive waterpipe smoking and both cigarettes and waterpipe as the dependent variables and gender, type of school, and class as the independent variables. The current prevalence of cigarettes smoking was 11.4%, and that of waterpipe smoking was 29.6%. Gender was significantly associated with cigarettes (OR=3.2, 95% CI 1.8-5.6) but not waterpipe smoking. Public school students were, respectively, 3.2 (95% CI 1.8-5.6) and 1.7 (95% CI 1.4-2.1) times more likely to be exclusive cigarettes smokers, and exclusive waterpipe smokers. Class was not significantly associated with exclusive cigarette smoking; however, students attending secondary classes were 1.3 (95% CI 1.1-1.6) times more likely to be exclusive waterpipe smokers. The reasons behind the high prevalence of both types of smoking are presented and discussed. The present study calls for school-based prevention programs and other types of interventions such as tax increases, and age-restrictions on tobacco sales. More aggressive interventions to disseminate education and awareness among parents and students altogether are warranted.     

Does a failed quit attempt reduce cigarette consumption following resumption of smoking? The effects of time and quit attempts on the longitudinal analysis of self-reported cigarette smoking intensity.

California Tobacco Survey respondents were asked the intensity of their cigarette smoking 1 year previously and at the time of the survey. Respondents reported a generally lower smoking intensity at survey time compared with 1 year previously. Multivariable statistical models on the change in smoking intensity in the past year were fitted to assess the effects of low-tar cigarette use, a quit attempt in the past year, smoking intensity 1 year previously, and demographic variables (age, education, income, and race). The most important predictor of change in intensity was the intensity 1 year previously. The next most important predictor was whether a quit attempt had been made in the previous year. The demographic variables also were found to have a significant effect, although their effects were of smaller magnitude. Low-tar cigarette use was not a significant predictor of change in intensity in multivariable analysis. The effect of a quit attempt on the reduction in intensity of smoking suggests that periods of cessation may reduce the intensity of smoking and the level of addiction for several months following relapse. Consequently, it may be important to control for cessation activity in studies comparing exposures from conventional tobacco products to exposures from new products that purport to offer lower harm.     

Personality and smoking status: a meta-analysis.

We used meta-analytic techniques in an attempt to clarify the strength and direction of the association between smoking status and personality, which narrative reviews have indicated remains a largely inconsistent literature. Included were cross-sectional studies that reported personality data for healthy, adult smokers and nonsmokers using measures of personality traits derived from Eysenck's tripartite taxonomy of human personality. Of the 25 studies that contributed to the meta-analysis, 22 reported data on smoking status and extraversion and 22 reported data on smoking status and neuroticism. Meta-analysis using a fixed-effects framework indicated a significant difference between smokers and nonsmokers on both extraversion (p<.001) and neuroticism (p<.001) traits, which remained significant when a random-effects framework was used to accommodate significant between-study heterogeneity. These data from cross-sectional observational studies published between 1972 and 2001 indicate that both increased extraversion and increased neuroticism are associated with an increased likelihood of being a smoker rather than a nonsmoker, although in both cases the effect sizes indicated by the meta-analysis were small. We found no evidence that the strength of these associations varied with year of publication.     

Ethnic differences in predictors of adolescent smoking onset and escalation: a longitudinal study from 7th to 12th grade.

The present study sought to determine whether risk factors for cigarette smoking onset have a stronger influence on Black versus White children, and whether those patterns differ for nonsmokers versus experimental smokers. As part of a larger study, 5,213 seventh graders were surveyed annually for 5 years. The survey instrument assessed cigarette smoking, along with a variety of background variables thought to influence smoking. Results indicated that rebelliousness predicted smoking onset for Black nonsmokers; peer modeling was more influential for Whites. For both ethnicities, socially isolated children were at increased risk. The variables that predicted the shift from experimental to regular smoking were for the most part different from those that predicted smoking onset. Specifically, youths who lived with smokers, viewed smoking as a means to a goal, and experienced few adverse physiological effects of smoking were more likely to increase their cigarette consumption. Overall, we found that, contrary to previous research, risk factors for smoking differed across ethnicity. Further, smoking onset appears to be shaped by forces different from those that accelerate consumption.     

A pilot study of smoking and associated behaviors of low-income expectant fathers.

Pregnancy is considered a teachable moment for helping women who smoke to quit, yet few studies have examined smoking behavior of expectant fathers. The present study considers the possibility that pregnancy is a teachable moment for expectant fathers as well and describes smoking and associated behaviors of men during their partner's pregnancy. Participants were 138 low-income men living with their pregnant partners. Using telephone interviews, we found 63% of the men had smoked at least 100 cigarettes in their lifetime. Current smoking was reported by 49.3% of expectant fathers (39.1% daily smoking; 10.2% some days). Expectant fathers' current smoking was associated with having a lower level of education (p<.0001), pregnant partner being a current smoker (p=.0002), higher quantity of alcohol consumption per day of drinking (p=.0003), and absence of smoking prohibitions inside the home (p<.0001). In the past year, 70.1% of the current smokers tried to quit. We found high rates of smoking in low-income expectant fathers, and an expectant father's smoking during his partner's pregnancy was associated with his pregnant partner continuing to smoke. A majority of expectant fathers identified as current smokers tried to quit in the past year or indicated an intention to quit in the near future. Intervention during pregnancy that targets pregnant women and expectant fathers who smoke could lead to more households without tobacco use and thus have positive implications for paternal, maternal, and family health. Further clinical and research attention is needed to address the smoking behaviors of both expectant fathers and their pregnant partners.     

Factors influencing changes in sustainability perception of various food behaviors: Results of a longitudinal study

It is important to understand better how people evaluate the environmental impacts of different food aspects. A longitudinal panel study design (N = 2600) was used to examine whether the perceptions of various environment-related, food consumption patterns changed between 2010 and 2014 and what factors influenced such changes. The results indicated that participants evaluated the eating less meat (maximum of once or twice per week) behavior as substantially more beneficial for the environment in 2014 compared with 2010. The study design allowed us to examine which factors influenced the changes in the perception of the environmental benefits of eating less meat. Participants who perceived the arguments that reducing meat consumption is better for the environment, better for the health, and prevents animal suffering as more convincing in 2014 compared with 2010 also perceived eating less meat as more beneficial for the environment in the 2014 survey compared with the 2010 survey. An increase in participants’ health consciousness and the change scores in their convictions that seasonal fruits and vegetables taste better and are cheaper strengthened their belief that such behaviors would be beneficial for the environment. Therefore, the results suggest that the halo effect may have influenced participants’ evaluations. Consumers lack general factual knowledge about product-specific environmental footprints. Highlighting the direct benefits for consumers will likely increase their willingness to reduce environment-unfriendly consumption patterns.