Learning programming via worked-examples: Relation of learning styles to cognitive load

This paper describes an experiment that compared learners with contrasting learning styles, Active vs. Reflective, using three different strategies for learning programming via worked-examples: Paired-method, Structure-emphasising, and Completion. The quality of the learners’ acquired cognitive schemata was assessed in terms of their post-test performance. The experiment investigated variations in learners’ cognitive load, taking both the learning strategies and the learners’ learning styles into account. Overall, the results of the experiment were inconsistent. In comparing the effects of the strategies during the learning phase, the study found significant differences in cognitive load. Unexpectedly, no differences were then detected either in cognitive load or in performance during the post-test (post-test). In comparing the effects of the learning styles during the learning phase and the transfer phase, medium effect sizes suggested that learning style may have had an effect on cognitive load. However, no significant difference was observed in performance during the post-test.     

An expertise reversal effect of segmentation in learning from animated worked-out examples

Many animations impose a high cognitive load due to the transience of information, which often hampers learning. Segmentation, that is presenting animations in pieces (i.e., segments), has been proposed as a means to reduce this high cognitive load. The expertise reversal effect shows, however, that design measures that have a positive effect on cognitive load and learning for students with lower levels of prior knowledge, might not be effective, or might even have a negative effect on cognitive load and learning for students with higher levels of prior knowledge. This experiment with animated worked-out examples showed an expertise reversal effect of segmentation: segmented animations were more efficient than continuous animations (i.e., equal test performance with lower investment of mental effort during learning) for students with lower levels of prior knowledge, but not for students with higher levels of prior knowledge.     

Strategic learning from expository animations: Short- and mid-term effects

In an experimental study, we investigated whether making use of a cognitive learning strategy (1) improves learning from different expository animations, (2) leads to an acquisition of knowledge which is available beyond the learning period, and (3) equally benefits students with low and high cognitive ability alike. A total of 152 sixth graders participated in the study: 69 students learned from an animation about the dances of honeybees and 83 students learned from an animation about sailing. With respect to both animations, the students who made use of the learning strategy significantly outperformed the students who had to write a summary. Effect sizes are medium to large. The beneficial effects of the learning strategy were also verified one week after the learning took place. The results of this study do not support the assumption that students with low and high cognitive ability benefit differently from the strategy.     

Explaining the segmentation effect in learning from animations: The role of pausing and temporal cueing

Segmentation of animations, that is presenting them in pieces rather than as a continuous stream of information, has been shown to have a beneficial effect on cognitive load and learning for novices. Two different explanations of this segmentation effect have been proposed. Firstly, pauses are usually inserted between the segments, which may give learners extra time to perform necessary cognitive processes. Secondly, because segmentation divides animations into meaningful pieces, it provides a form of temporal cueing which may support learners in perceiving the underlying structure of the process or procedure depicted in the animation. This study investigates which of these explanations is the most plausible. Secondary education students (N = 161) studied animations on probability calculation, after having been randomly assigned to one of four conditions: non-segmented animations, animations segmented by pauses only, animations segmented by temporarily darkening the screen only, and animations segmented by both pauses and temporarily darkening the screen. The results suggest that both pauses and cues play a role in the segmentation effect, but in a different way.     

Does modality play a role? Visual‐verbal cognitive style and multimedia learning

The study presented in this paper aimed to examine the effect of visual and verbal cognitive style on learning from different types of visualization and modalities of explanatory text. Learning materials in the form of either computer‐based animation or a series of static pictures with written or spoken explanations were presented to 197 students. We found that a more developed visual cognitive style was related to a better learning outcome, when learning from a combination of static pictures and written text. Higher developed visualizers achieved poorer learning outcomes when learning with an animation and written text. The results are partially in line with an ability‐as‐compensator effect and the expertise reversal effect. Additionally, we found a modality effect as the versions with spoken text provided better results on learning outcome than the versions with written text regardless of the prominence of visual cognitive style. No significant interaction effects were found regarding verbal cognitive style.     

三维动画中常用计算机图形学知识的教学探究

在艺术院校,学生缺乏一些应有计算机图形学的了解,使其以机械记忆的方式学习三维动画软件,而不知其原理,操作时有较大盲目性,也很难发挥软件的一些高级功能。三维动画中常用计算机图形学是学好三维动画必备知识。但计算机图形学抽象,对理性思维较弱的艺术院校学生来说,易产生理解困难,甚至反感抵触。文章结合计算机图形学的特性和艺术院校学生的特点,对艺术院校三维动画中常用计算机图形学的教学内容和原则进行论述。     

Optimal self-explanation prompt design in dynamic multi-representational learning environments

Self-explanation prompts are considered to be an important form of scaffolding in the comprehension of complex multimedia materials. However, there is little theoretical understanding to date of self-explaining prompt formats tailored to different expertise levels of learners to help them fully exploit the advantages of dynamic multi-representational materials. To address this issue, this study designed two types of self-explaining prompts: the reasoning-based prompts asked the learners to reason the action run of the animation; the predicting-based prompts asked the learners to predict the upcoming action of the animation, and then asked for reasoning if they made a wrong prediction. Furthermore, multiple indicators including learning outcome, cognitive load demand, learning time, and learning efficiency were used to interpret the prompts’ effects on different expertise levels of learners. A total of 244 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to one of the three conditions: a control and two different self-explaining prompt conditions. The results indicate that the learning effects of self-explaining prompts depend on levels of learner expertise. Based on the results, this study makes recommendations for adaptive self-explaining prompt design.     

Exploring the cognitive loads of high-school students as they learn concepts in web-based environments

This study measured high-school learners' cognitive load as they interacted with different web-based curriculum components, and examined the interactions between cognitive load and web-based concept learning. Participants in this study were 105 11th graders from an academic senior high school in Taiwan. An online, multimedia curriculum on the topic of global warming, which lasted for four weeks, provided the learning context. After students worked through the curriculum, their feelings about the degree of mental effort that it took to complete the learning tasks were measured by self-report on a 9-point Likert scale. An online test and the flow-map method were applied to assess participants' concept achievements. The results showed that curriculum components such as scientific articles, online notebooks, flash animations and the online test induced a relatively high cognitive load, and that a lower cognitive load resulted in better concept achievement. Also, students appeared to adopt different learning approaches that were corresponding to different levels of cognitive load.     

3D visualization types in multimedia applications for science learning: A case study for 8th grade students in Greece

This research aims to determine whether the use of specific types of visualization (3D illustration, 3D animation, and interactive 3D animation) combined with narration and text, contributes to the learning process of 13- and 14- years-old students in science courses. The study was carried out with 212 8th grade students in Greece. This exploratory study utilizes three different versions of an interactive multimedia application called “Methods of separation of mixtures”, each one differing from the other two in a type of visuals. The results indicate that multimedia applications with interactive 3D animations as well as with 3D animations do in fact increase the interest of students and make the material more appealing to them. The findings also suggest that the most obvious and essential benefit of static visuals (3D illustrations) is that they leave the time control of learning to the students and decrease the cognitive load.     

Measuring cognitive load in test items: static graphics versus animated graphics

The majority of multimedia learning studies focus on the use of graphics in learning process but very few of them examine the role of graphics in testing students' knowledge. This study investigates the use of static graphics versus animated graphics in a computer‐based English achievement test from a cognitive load theory perspective. Three hundred and three 7th‐grade students were randomly split into two groups and given the test questions either with static graphics or with animated graphics accompanied with text. Students' response time, response accuracy, self‐reported ratings on cognitive load and secondary task approach were used to measure their cognitive load. Findings revealed that animating graphics increased the response time and secondary task scores of the students but did not have any significant effect on their test success. Furthermore, no difference was observed in self‐reported cognitive loads. The relationship between the four different cognitive load measures was also examined in the study. No direct relation was found between self‐reported ratings and secondary task scores. On the other hand, self‐ratings and response accuracy were found to be more sensitive to intrinsic cognitive load, whereas response time and secondary task measures were found to be more sensitive to extraneous cognitive load in our testing environment.     

Improving learning from animated soccer scenes: Evidence for the expertise reversal effect

In two experiments, we investigated how animation of play (soccer) should be designed in order to avoid the high cognitive load due to the fleeting nature of information. Using static pictures and altering the animation’s presentation speed have been proposed as instructional strategies to reduce learners’ cognitive load. In the first experiment, we tested the effect of static vs. animated presentations on learning. The results indicated that novices benefited more from the static presentation whereas experts benefited more from the animated presentation. The second experiment investigated the effect of low vs. normal vs. high levels of presentation speed on learning. The results showed that novices profited more from the low presentation speed while experts profited more from the normal and high presentation speeds. Thus both experiments demonstrated the occurrences of the expertise reversal effect. Findings suggest that the effectiveness of instructional strategies depends on levels of soccer players’ expertise.     

A novel method to monitoring changes in cognitive load in video‐based learning

One of the golden rules in instructional design methods is to optimize the use of working memory capacity and avoid cognitive overload. The study of cognitive load has historically relied on one's introspection. However, it is difficult to capture changes in cognitive load levels during learning sensitively. This paper suggests an approach to investigating dynamic changes in cognitive load by using a pupillometry. With the method, this study explores the effects of learners' prior knowledge and task complexity on cognitive load. An experiment was conducted on two groups of students (N = 19) with distinct levels of prior knowledge. In the experimental session, participants watched a video lecture on a mathematics proposition, while being eye‐tracked. The lecture consists of sections, which can be either a high task complexity or a low task complexity based on elements they have. Pupil dilations acquired in each section were used to explore the time course of cognitive load. To formulate cognitive load patterns, a time‐series clustering was used. The research conducted a chi‐square analysis to test differences in cognitive load patterns by prior knowledge and task complexity. Results show that pupil dilation patterns can be applied to monitor changes in cognitive load during learning.     

Improving problem solving ability in mathematics by using a mathematical model: A computerized approach

The present study investigates the improvement of students’ mathematical performance by using a mathematical model through a computerized approach. We had developed an intervention program and 11 years students worked independently on a mathematical model in order to improve their self-representation in mathematics, to self-regulate their performance and consequently to improve their problem solving ability. The emphasis of using the specific model was on dividing the problem solving procedure into stages, the concentration on the students’ cognitive processes at each stage and the self-regulation of those cognitive processes in order to overcome cognitive obstacles. The use of the computer offered the opportunity to give students general comments, hints and feedback without the involvement of their teachers. Students had to communicate with a cartoon animation presenting a human being who faced difficulties and cognitive obstacles during problem solving procedure. Three tools were constructed for pre- and post-test (self-representation, mathematical performance and self-regulation). There were administered to 255 students (11 years old), who constituted the experimental and the control group. Results confirmed that providing students with the opportunity to self-reflect on their learning behavior when they encounter obstacles in problem solving is one possible way to enhance students’ self-regulation and consequently their mathematical performance.     

The impact of multimedia effect on science learning: Evidence from eye movements

This study examined how middle school students constructed their understanding of the mitosis and meiosis processes at a molecular level through multimedia learning materials presented in different interaction and sensory modality modes. A two (interaction modes: animation/simulation) by two (sensory modality modes: narration/on-screen text) factorial design was employed. The dependent variables included subjects’ pre-test, post-test, and retention-test scores, showing their understanding of mitosis and meiosis process at molecular level, as well as data of subjects’ eye-movement behavior. Results showed the group that received animation with narration allocated a greater amount of visual attention (number of fixations, total inspection time, and mean fixation duration) than the group that received animation with on-screen text, in both pictorial area and area of interest, which is consistent with students’ immediate and long-term retained learning of the processes of mitosis and meiosis. The group that received simulation with on-screen text allocated a greater amount of visual attention than the group that received simulation with narration, consistent with students’ immediate and retained learning. The group that received simulation with on-screen text also allocated a greater amount of visual attention than the group that received animation with on-screen text, consistent with students’ immediate and retained learning. This study adds empirical evidence of a direct correlation between the length of eye fixation behavior and the depth of learning. Moreover, it provides insight into the multimedia effect on students’ cognitive process through the use of eye fixation behavior evidence.     

The attention-guiding effect and cognitive load in the comprehension of animations

To be effective, instructional animations should avoid causing high extraneous cognitive load imposed by the high attentional requirements of selecting and processing relevant elements. In accordance with the attention-guiding principle (Bétrancourt, 2005), a study was carried out concerning the impact of cueing on cognitive load and comprehension of animations which depicted a dynamic process in a neurobiology domain. Cueing consisted of zooming in important information at each step of the process. Thirty-six undergraduate psychology students were exposed to an animation three times. Half of the participants received an animation without cueing while the other half received the same animation with cueing. Measures of cognitive load and comprehension performance (questions on isolated elements and on high-element interactivity material) were administered twice, after one and three exposures to the animation. The analyses revealed two main results. First, extraneous cognitive load was reduced by cueing after three exposures. Second, retention of the isolated elements was improved in both animation groups, whereas comprehension of high-element interactive material (i.e., the causal relations between elements) increased only in the cueing condition. Furthermore, a problem solving task showed that cueing supported the development of a more elaborate mental model.     

The effect of GeoGebra software–supported mathematics instruction on eighth-grade students' conceptual understanding and retention

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of using dynamic geometry software (GeoGebra) on the eighth-grade students' conceptual understanding and the retention of learning regarding linear equations and slope. In this study, a quasi-experimental design with pre-test, post-test and delayed post-test was employed. This study was conducted with 52 eighth-grade Turkish students (experimental group, n = 25; control group, n = 27). While GeoGebra software-supported instruction was carried out in the experimental group, textbook-based direct instruction was continued in the control group. Data were collected with the conceptual understanding test (CUT) which consists of 38 questions including open-ended, multiple choice and fill in the blanks. CUT was applied to the experimental and control groups as a pre-test and post-test at both the beginning and the end of the instruction, respectively. Seven weeks after the instruction, CUT was applied to both groups as a retention test. Data were analysed through SPSS 17.0 statistical software by using a t-test and ANCOVA test. It was indicated in the study results that GeoGebra software-supported instruction for eighth-grade students regarding linear equations and slope did significantly improve both their conceptual understanding and retention of learning in comparison to textbook-based direct instruction.     

Do students benefit equally from interactive computer simulations regardless of prior knowledge levels?

The purposes of this study were to examine the effects of two types of interactive computer simulations and of prior knowledge levels on concept comprehension, cognitive load, and learning efficiency. Seventy-two 5th grade students were sampled from two elementary schools. They were divided into two groups (high and low) based on prior knowledge levels, and each group was divided into two treatment groups (a low-interactive simulation group and a high-interactive simulation group). The dependent variables were concept comprehension, cognitive load, and learning efficiency. The results showed that, for students with high prior knowledge levels, high-interactive simulations, rather than low-interactive simulations, resulted in significantly increased comprehension scores, decreased cognitive load scores, and higher learning efficiency. On the other hand, among students with low prior knowledge levels, the low-interactive simulation group did not demonstrate significantly increased comprehension scores, but they did show lower cognitive load scores and higher learning efficiency than the high-interactive simulation group.     

Attention cueing in an instructional animation: The role of presentation speed

Research has shown that guiding learners’ attention in animations by cueing does not necessarily improve conceptual understanding. This study investigated whether the number of elements that are presented per unit of time influences the effectiveness of cueing by showing a cued or an uncued animation about the cardiovascular system at a high or at a low speed. It was hypothesized that cueing would be most helpful for learning when the animation was shown at a high rather than at a low speed. Unexpectedly, students showed equal performances on comprehension and transfer tests irrespective of cueing and the animation’s speed. However, the low speed groups invested more mental effort to obtain this performance than the high speed groups. The findings and their implications for the design of animations are discussed in terms of cognitive load theory.     

The role of spatial ability when fostering mental animation in multimedia learning: An ATI-study

The present Aptitude-Treatment-Interaction (ATI) study investigates the learner characteristic spatial ability (aptitude) and the variation of mental-animation prompts (treatment: no vs. mental-animation prompts). A group of high-school students (N = 94) learned about a biology topic through learner-paced multimedia instruction. Some of the learners received mental-animation prompts and others learned without prompts. A fine-grained analysis with spatial ability as continuous aptitude variable and mental animation as treatment showed a positive learning effect of animation prompts in learning outcomes of processes, but not in knowledge about structures. In addition, spatial ability only modified the relationship between animation prompts and learning when analyzing knowledge about processes. Specifically, only learners of low to medium spatial ability profited from the prompts while learners with very low or high spatial ability had comparable results when learning with or without prompts. In addition, only learners with high spatial ability rated their cognitive load to be significantly higher when learning with prompts. Results align with the assumptions of the production deficiency of learners with low to medium spatial ability, mediation deficiency of learners with very low spatial ability and stable learning performance of learners with high spatial ability whatever the learning situation offers.     

Performance,cognitive load,and behaviour of technology‐assisted English listening learning: From CALL to MALL

This study examines differences in English listening comprehension, cognitive load, and learning behaviour between outdoor ubiquitous learning and indoor computer‐assisted learning. An experimental design, employing a pretest‐posttest control group is employed. Randomly assigned foreign language university majors joined either the experimental group (outdoor ubiquitous learning), with 80 participants (26 males and 54 females), or a control group (indoor computer‐assisted learning), with 80 participants (27 males and 53 females). The experiment lasted 3 weeks. Both groups were administered a test of English listening proficiency before and after the experiment along with a questionnaire of cognitive load postexperiment. Prior English listening proficiency forms a covariate for the multivariate analysis of covariance. Results show (a) students in the experimental group exhibit significantly better English listening comprehension after the experiment compared to the control group; (b) students in the experimental group reported significantly lower cognitive load than the control group; (c) English listening comprehension and cognitive load exhibited a statistically significant negative relationship; and (d) outdoor ubiquitous learning enhanced self‐reported learning interests and interactions more than indoor computer‐assisted learning. Contributions and significances of this study are presented based on these results. Finally, implications for teaching practices are proposed.