Chromatic characteristics and anthocyanin profile of a micro-oxygenated red wine after oak or bottle maturation

Micro-oxygenation (MOX) was applied to a red wine for 5 months following the end of alcoholic fermentation and then both a non-oxygenated control wine and the micro-oxygenated wine were matured in oak barrels or bottles. The concentration of anthocyanin and anthocyanin-derived compounds and the chromatic characteristics of the control and micro-oxygenated wines after the maturation period were studied. Anthocyanin and anthocyanin-derived compounds composition were determined by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry; and, together with monomeric anthocyanins, compounds including direct anthocyanin-flavanol adducts, ethyl-linked anthocyanin-flavanol compounds, and pyranoanthocyanins were identified. The results showed that the improvements in the chromatic characteristics obtained by applying the MOX technique to Monastrell wines were maintained after an aging period in bottle or barrel. The color intensity of wines increased during maturation in oak barrels, whereas the color of the bottled wines decreased, although MOX wines always showed higher color intensity than the respective control wines. Bottled wines also showed a higher increase in tint and a lower quantity of compounds resistant to SO₂ discoloration than oak matured wines, indicating that the formation of these compounds is favored by the oxidative conditions in oak barrels.     

Phenolic compounds in a Spanish red wine aged in barrels made of Spanish,French and American oak wood

A red Rioja wine was aged in barrels made of Spanish oak wood for 21 months. The evolutions of colour percentage intensity, families of phenolic compounds and low molecular weight phenolic compounds were studied in these wines and compared with those of the same wine aged in barrels made of French and American oak. The analysis of chromatic parameters and total anthocyanins indicates that the wines aged in Spanish and French oak wood barrels have similar chromatic characteristics, but are significantly different to those of wines aged in barrels made of American oak wood, indicating a different degree of modification of the colour. The ageing process also had an important influence on the low molecular weight polyphenols composition of wine. The evolution of these components allowed the production of wines with different characteristics, in relation to the type of wood used in barrel making process. On the other hand, Spanish oak wood can be considered suitable for barrel production for quality wines, since a wine aged in barrels made of Spanish oak wood showed similar and intermediate characteristics to those of the same wine aged in French and American oak woods.     

Effect of aging in new oak, one-year-used oak, chestnut barrels and bottle on color, phenolics and gustative profile of three monovarietal red wines

This study provides specific information about the influence of storage in bottle and in 225-L barrels made from oak (new and used for 1 year) and chestnut wood on color indexes, spectrophotometric evaluable polyphenols, anthocyanins, phenolic acids and gustative attributes of three monovarietal red wines (Piedirosso, Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot). The results of the analysis of variance show that wood type has a significant influence on chromatic characteristics, on vanilline reactive flavans, on low molecular weight phenolics and on astringency of wines. The effect depends on the type of wine. Therefore, both traditional and alternative wood containers could be used as an instrument to regulate the polymerization, oxidation and copigmentation reaction of wine phenolics and the sensory properties of red wine. The maturation in chestnut wood could be an interesting challenge to widen the supply of red wines maturated in wood, but its use needs more care than oak.     

橡木桶在高档陈酿型干红葡萄酒生产中的优化应用

橡木桶陈酿过程是酿造高品质葡萄酒最基本、最重要的环节。在生产高档陈酿型干红葡萄酒过程中,结合原料、发酵状况及陈酿过程中的酒体变化,分析研究陈酿过程中橡木桶的选择与陈酿管理等实际问题。由此制定出椽木桶优化应用方案,开发高档陈酿型干红葡萄酒系列产品。     

Effect of ripening stage of grapes on the low molecular weight phenolic compounds of red wines

Different red wines were elaborated to study the effect of the date of the grape harvest on the levels of individual low molecular weight phenolic compounds, which are chiefly responsible for the wine color. Two red grape varieties and two consecutive years were studied at three different harvesting stages of grapes, and the changes during the 18 months of wine aging (12 months in oak barrels and 6 months in the bottle) were also followed. The results showed that the wines made from grapes harvested 1 week later than the usual date generally had higher contents of some simple phenols, which can act as cofactors that can maintain the color intensity and violet tonalities in aged wines. Besides, these wines had lower levels of caftaric and coutaric acids, which are two of the main substrates for oxidation and browning processes.     

Influence of the temperature and oxygen exposure in red Port wine: A kinetic approach

Although phenolics are recognized to be related with health benefits by limiting lipid oxidation, in wine, they are the primary substrates for oxidation resulting in the quinone by-products with the participation of transition metal ions. Nevertheless, high quality Port wines require a period of aging in either bottle or barrels. During this time, a modification of sensory properties of wines such as the decrease of astringency or the stabilization of color is recognized to phenolic compounds, mainly attributed to anthocyanins and derived pigments.The present work aims to illustrate the oxidation of red Port wine based on its phenolic composition by the effect of both thermal and oxygen exposures. A kinetic approach toanthocyanins degradation was also achieved. For this purpose a forced red Port wine aging protocol was performed at four different storage temperatures, respectively, 20, 30, 35 and 40 °C, and two adjusted oxygen saturation levels, no oxygen addition (treatment I), and oxygen addition (treatment II). Three hydroxycinnamic esters, three hydroxycinnamic acids, three hydroxybenzoic acids, two flavan-3-ols, and six anthocyanins were quantitated weekly during 63 days, along with oxygen consumption. The most relevant phenolic oxidation markers were anthocyanins and catechin-type flavonoids, which had the highest decreases during the thermal and oxidative red Port wine process. Both temperature and oxygen treatments affected the rate of phenolic degradation. In addition, temperature seems to influence mostly the phenolics kinetic degradation.     

橡木桶陈酿对红葡萄酒抗氧化性的影响

采用2,2'-联氮-双-3-乙基苯并噻唑啉-6-磺酸（ABTS）方法动态监测经橡木桶陈酿和未经橡木桶陈酿的红葡萄酒的反应过程,比较在测定其抗氧化活性的反应条件上的差异,从而确定适合检测的最佳反应条件,并分析橡木桶陈酿对红葡萄酒中酚类物质含量和抗氧化活性的影响。结果表明,ABTS方法测定经橡木桶陈酿的红葡萄酒抗氧化活性的最佳反应时间范围是240～280 min,最佳稀释比例范围为1∶100～2∶100,未经橡木桶陈酿的最佳反应时间范围是220～260 min,最佳稀释比例范围是3∶100～4∶100,此条件下各因素与自由基清除率的线性关系R2均＞0.999。试验证明,采用合适的检测方法测定不同陈酿方式酒的抗氧化活性有利于提高检测效率和准确性,经橡木桶陈酿过的红葡萄酒中的酚类物质含量和抗氧化活性更高。     

橡木桶对葡萄酒品质的影响

橡木桶对葡萄酒的香气、色泽和稳定性有重要的作用。葡萄酒在橡木桶中经过氧化、浸渍等反应,可以有效改善葡萄酒品质。该文综述了橡木的种类、橡木桶的容量、橡木的烘烤程度对葡萄酒的品质的影响,并对生产中如何选择橡木桶提出合理建议。旨在进一步探究橡木桶在葡萄酒成熟中的作用。     

Criteria to discriminate between wines aged in oak barrels and macerated with oak fragments

Wine aging in barrels is carried out to increase stability and achieve more complex aromas. In the last few years, however, the practice of macerating wine with small fragments of toasted oak (chips) has become increasingly common. This conveys similar tastes, aromas, and wooden notes to the wine as those obtained with traditional barrel aging, but much faster and at a fraction of the cost. Without proper regulation, this could lead to fraud if wine macerated with chips is offered as barrel aged wine.In the present study, 75 volatile compounds have been determined by applying gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (MS) and flame ionization detection (FID). It has been found that compounds directly related to the wood have greater discriminative power for telling apart wines aged in barrels from those macerated with oak fragments, but no single compound permits flawless classification. Therefore, we have studied the effect of the addition of oak fragments of different origins, different oak types, different formats and subjected to different toasting processes on a set of 231 samples from 6 Spanish Denominations of Origin wines (DOs), and compared them to those same wines aged in oak barrels. In light of the results, we have developed a set of criteria which allows distinguishing with high degree of accuracy between wines which have been aged in barrels and those macerated with oak fragments. The application of these criteria to different wines allows correct classification in over 90% of cases.     

葡萄酒陈酿新技术研究进展

葡萄酒作为全世界最受欢迎的饮品之一,其感官特性（如气味、口感和颜色）在很大程度上取决于所使用的陈酿技术。橡木桶是陈酿红葡萄酒常用的容器,但是用橡木桶陈酿周期较长,人力、物力消耗大,且产量也有限,所以亟待寻求替代橡木桶的陈酿方法。作者探究了橡木桶陈酿葡萄酒的原理,并比较了不同葡萄酒陈酿新方法的原理、优劣及可行性,同时,结合我国国情对未来寻求新材料替代橡木桶的可行性进行了展望,为新兴技术与葡萄酒行业的结合提供理论支持。     

浸渍时间对闪蒸赤霞珠干红酚类物质和颜色特征的影响

对赤霞珠葡萄进行闪蒸处理,通过不同时间(0d、3d、5d、7d)的浸渍发酵,比较研究了闪蒸葡萄酒与传统发酵酒在发酵和橡木桶陈酿过程中酚类物质含量和颜色特征的差异,结果表明:在发酵和陈酿过程中,与传统发酵酒相比,闪蒸处理后进行3d、5d、7d浸渍可显著提高酒中总酚、单宁含量,且和浸渍时间呈正相关;所有闪蒸处理酒均色度值高、色调值低;陈酿270d后,浸渍5d的闪蒸酒颜色最深,而浸渍7d的闪蒸酒红色色调最强.     

发酵容器对赤霞珠干红葡萄酒中花色苷的影响

利用高效液相色谱-质谱(HPLC-MS)联用检测技术分析了法国旋转橡木桶和不锈钢发酵罐酿造的赤霞珠干红葡萄酒陈酿180d和360d后花色苷的种类、数量,并与CIELAB法测定的葡萄酒色泽比较,结果发现二甲花翠素类花色苷是赤霞珠干红葡萄酒的主体花色苷类型,其中二甲花翠素单葡萄糖苷和二甲花翠素乙酰化单葡萄糖苷作为特征峰,分别占其花色苷总量的50%和20%以上;发酵容器影响葡萄酒中花色苷的种类和含量;陈酿过程中酰化的花色苷均较其相应的糖苷下降幅度大;陈酿180d的葡萄酒红色色调的深浅主要由花色苷的含量高低决定,陈酿360d的葡萄酒红色色调深浅和花色苷的含量高低无关;橡木桶用于赤霞珠干红葡萄酒发酵能获得较不锈钢罐更浓的红色和黄色色调以及更深的总色度。为葡萄酒酿造工艺优化和产品质量监控提供了理论依据与快速准确的化学鉴定手段。     

酚类物质的结构与性质及其与葡萄及葡萄酒的关系

酚类物质是一类大而复杂的化合物。葡萄与葡萄酒中常见的酚类物质可分为类黄酮和非类黄酮两大类，它们是葡萄中重要的次生代谢产物，与葡萄的抗病性、采后生理、贮存、保鲜等密切相关。葡萄酒中的酚类物质来自于葡萄果实、果梗、酵母代谢以及橡木桶，参与形成葡萄酒的味道、骨架、结构和颜色等，对红葡萄酒的特征和质量尤其重要。     

Intensity of taste and astringency sensations elicited by red wines is associated with sensitivity to PROP (6-n-propylthiouracil)

The relationship between sensitivity to 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) and taste and astringency perception elicited by red wines was examined. Twenty-five subjects were classified into three PROP sensitivity groups (non-tasters, tasters and super-tasters) based on their bitterness ratings of a 0.32 mM PROP solution as measured on a Labeled Magnitude Scale (LMS). In a completely randomized block design, subjects used the LMS to rate the bitterness, astringency and acidity intensities of three commercial red wines. Contrary to the findings of previous studies with wine, bitterness, astringency and acidity intensities were all correlated with individual PROP taster status. PROP non-tasters gave significantly lower intensity ratings for the bitterness, astringency and acidity of the red wines than did PROP tasters and super-tasters. Individual differences among taster groups may be related to preference and consumption behavior of consumers of wine and other alcoholic beverages.     

Burgundy red wines: Representation of potential for aging

This study was conducted to investigate wine professionals’ perception of aging potential of red wines. In the first experiment, 41 wine professionals assessed sixteen commercial Burgundy red wines via a binary categorization task, an aging potential rating task, and a hedonic rating task and an analytic sensory evaluation including an astringency and a bitterness rating task. The wines were also analyzed by High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography with a UV Detector (HPLC-UV) and their color was evaluated using Hue (H*), Lightness (L*) and Chroma (C*) measurements. Results showed that the wines were split into two clusters on the basis of aging potential judgements indicating that the wine professionals had a collective representation of the characteristics of a wine with a potential for aging. Wines with a potential for aging were characterized by low L* and H* and high C* values, a high astringency and a higher concentration of anthocyanins and polyphenol. In a second experiment, 34 wine professionals performed three potential for aging binary sorting task based on (1) visual assessment only, (2) olfacto-gustatory assessment only and (3) overall assessment (visual plus in-mouth). Results showed that the sensory modalities tested were complementary and that visual or olfacto-gustatory assessments alone were not sufficient to explain overall judgments of aging potential.     

Enological potential of chestnut wood for aging Tempranillo wines Part II: Phenolic compounds and chromatic characteristics

The behavior of different aging chestnut treatments (chips, barrels, toasting process, and aging time) on the phenolic profile and color characteristics of Tempranillo red wines has been evaluated. Chestnut treatment produced a considerable decrease of anthocyanic phenolic compounds and an increase of benzoic acids in aged wines. In contrast, the effect of toasting process was not very significant on the phenolic composition of aged wines. Meanwhile the effect of time was a crucial parameter regarding the pyranoanthocyanin and flavonol content, attributable not only to the slow evolution and transformation of wine phenolic compounds, but also to the micro oxygenation process suffered through the pores of barrels over the aging time. Results also strongly suggested that with the use of chestnut chips a considerable sorption effect of free flavanols was observed. All these modifications were reflected on the chromatic characteristics of aged wines.     

Influence of wood origin in the polyphenolic composition of a Spanish red wine aging in bottle, after storage in barrels of Spanish, French and American oak wood

In this paper, the changes in the composition of a red wine obtained from Tempranillo grapes (Vitis vinifera L.), stored from 12 to 24 months in bottles were studied. The wine was previously aging for 21 months in barrels made of Spanish oak wood (Quercus spp.). The changes of chromatic data, global polyphenolic families assessment (polyphenols, catechins, proanthocyanidins and anthocyanins) and individually polyphenols by HPLC during their storage time in bottles were studied and compared with these of the same wine aged in barrels made of French oak and American oak and stored in bottle for 24 months. Samples of wines obtained after 12 months in bottle were also compared with those after 24 months. The stepwise discriminant analysis with data of chromatic parameters and global polyphenolic families indicates that the wines aged in Spanish and French oak wood barrels, after 24 months stored in bottle, have similar characteristics, but they are significantly different to those of wines aged in barrels made of American oak wood. Regarding the analysis of individually non-anthocyanic polyphenols, discriminant analysis shows that wines stored for 24 months in bottle, aged in barrels made of Spanish, French and American oak woods, show overlapping results, while those from wines after 12 months in bottle are more dispersed. The discriminant analysis carried out on anthocyanidin concentrations of wines stored 24 months in bottles has shown three groups according the kind of wood used, indicating that wines aged in Spanish and French oak barrels are much more similar in anthocyanidin concentrations than those aged in the American barrels.