Estimating forest canopy fuel parameters using LIDAR data

Fire researchers and resource managers are dependent upon accurate, spatially-explicit forest structure information to support the application of forest fire behavior models. In particular, reliable estimates of several critical forest canopy structure metrics, including canopy bulk density, canopy height, canopy fuel weight, and canopy base height, are required to accurately map the spatial distribution of canopy fuels and model fire behavior over the landscape. The use of airborne laser scanning (LIDAR), a high-resolution active remote sensing technology, provides for accurate and efficient measurement of three-dimensional forest structure over extensive areas. In this study, regression analysis was used to develop predictive models relating a variety of LIDAR-based metrics to the canopy fuel parameters estimated from inventory data collected at plots established within stands of varying condition within Capitol State Forest, in western Washington State. Strong relationships between LIDAR-derived metrics and field-based fuel estimates were found for all parameters [sqrt(crown fuel weight): R²=0.86; ln(crown bulk density): R²=0.84; canopy base height: R²=0.77; canopy height: R²=0.98]. A cross-validation procedure was used to assess the reliability of these models. LIDAR-based fuel prediction models can be used to develop maps of critical canopy fuel parameters over forest areas in the Pacific Northwest.     

Three-dimensional canopy fuel loading predicted using upward and downward sensing LiDAR systems

We calibrated upward sensing profiling and downward sensing scanning LiDAR systems to estimates of canopy fuel loading developed from field plots and allometric equations, and then used the LiDAR datasets to predict canopy bulk density (CBD) and crown fuel weight (CFW) in wildfire prone stands in the New Jersey Pinelands. LiDAR-derived height profiles were also generated in 1-m layers, and regressed on CBD estimates calculated for 1-m layers from field plots to predict three-dimensional canopy fuel loading. We then produced maps of canopy fuel metrics for three 9 km² forested areas in the Pinelands.Correlations for standard LiDAR-derived parameters between the two LiDAR systems were all highly significant, with correlation coefficients ranging between 0.82 and 0.98. Stepwise linear regression models developed from the profiling LiDAR data predicted maximum CBD and CFW (r² = 0.94 and 0.92) better than those developed from the scanning LiDAR data (r² = 0.83 and 0.71, respectively). A single regression for the prediction of CBD at all canopy layers had r² values of 0.93 and 0.82 for the profiling and scanning datasets, respectively. Individual bin regressions for predicting CBD at each canopy height layer were also highly significant at most canopy heights, with r² values for each layer ranging between 0.36 and 0.89, and 0.44 and 0.99 for the profiling and scanning datasets, respectively. Relationships were poorest mid-canopy, where highest average values and highest variability in fuel loading occurred. Fit of data to Gaussian distributions of canopy height profiles facilitated a simpler expression of these parameters for analysis and mapping purposes, with overall r² values of 0.86 and 0.92 for the profiling and scanning LiDAR datasets, respectively. Our research demonstrates that LiDAR data can be used to generate accurate, three-dimensional representations of canopy structure and fuel loading at high spatial resolution by linking 1-m return height profiles to biometric estimates from field plots.     

Exploring LiDAR-RaDAR synergy—predicting aboveground biomass in a southwestern ponderosa pine forest using LiDAR, SAR and InSAR

Scanning Light Detecting and Ranging (LiDAR), Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) and Interferometric SAR (InSAR) were analyzed to determine (1) which of the three sensor systems most accurately predicted forest biomass, and (2) if LiDAR and SAR/InSAR data sets, jointly considered, produced more accurate, precise results relative to those same data sets considered separately. LiDAR ranging measurements, VHF-SAR cross-sectional returns, and X- and P-band cross-sectional returns and interferometric ranges were regressed with ground-estimated (from dbh) forest biomass in ponderosa pine forests in the southwestern United States. All models were cross-validated. Results indicated that the average canopy height measured by the scanning LiDAR produced the best predictive equation. The simple linear LiDAR equation explained 83% of the biomass variability (n = 52 plots) with a cross-validated root mean square error of 26.0 t/ha. Additional LiDAR metrics were not significant to the model. The GeoSAR P-band (λ = 86 cm) cross-sectional return and the GeoSAR/InSAR canopy height (X-P) captured 30% of the forest biomass variation with an average predictive error of 52.5 t/ha. A second RaDAR-FOPEN collected VHF (λ ∼ 7.8 m) and cross-polarized P-band (λ = 88 cm) cross-sectional returns, none of which proved useful for forest biomass estimation (cross-validated R² = 0.09, RMSE = 63.7 t/ha). Joint consideration of LiDAR and RaDAR measurements produced a statistically significant, albeit small improvement in biomass estimation precision. The cross-validated R² increased from 83% to 84% and the prediction error decreased from 26.0 t/ha to 24.9 t/ha when the GeoSAR X-P interferometric height is considered along with the average LiDAR canopy height. Inclusion of a third LiDAR metric, the 60th decile height, further increased the R² to 85% and decreased the RMSE to 24.1 t/ha. On this 11 km² ponderosa pine study area, LiDAR data proved most useful for predicting forest biomass. RaDAR ranging measurements did not improve the LiDAR estimates.     

Forest canopy height and carbon estimation at Monks Wood National Nature Reserve, UK, using dual-wavelength SAR interferometry

Forest canopy height is a critical parameter in better quantifying the terrestrial carbon cycle. It can be used to estimate aboveground biomass and carbon pools stored in the vegetation, and predict timber yield for forest management. Polarimetric SAR interferometry (PolInSAR) uses polarimetric separation of scattering phase centers derived from interferometry to estimate canopy height. A limitation of PolInSAR is that it relies on sufficient scattering phase center separation at each pixel to be able to derive accurate forest canopy height estimates. The effect of wavelength-dependent penetration depth into the canopy is known to be strong, and could potentially lead to a better height separation than relying on polarization combinations at one wavelength alone. Here we present a new method for canopy height mapping using dual-wavelength SAR interferometry (InSAR) at X- and L-band. The method is based on the scattering phase center separation at different wavelengths. It involves the generation of a smoothed interpolated terrain elevation model underneath the forest canopy from repeat-pass L-band InSAR data. The terrain model is then used to remove the terrain component from the single-pass X-band interferometric surface height to estimate forest canopy height. The ability of L-band to map terrain height under vegetation relies on sufficient spatial heterogeneity of the density of scattering elements that scatter L-band electromagnetic waves within each resolution cell. The method is demonstrated with airborne X-band VV polarized single-pass and L-band HH polarized repeat-pass SAR interferometry using data acquired by the E-SAR sensor over Monks Wood National Nature Reserve, UK. This is one of the first radar studies of a semi-natural deciduous woodland that exhibits considerable spatial heterogeneity of vegetation type and density. The canopy height model is validated using airborne imaging LIDAR data acquired by the Environment Agency. The rmse of the LIDAR canopy height estimates compared to theodolite data is 2.15 m (relative error 17.6%). The rmse of the dual-wavelength InSAR-derived canopy height model compared to LIDAR is 3.49 m (relative error 28.5%). From the canopy height maps carbon pools are estimated using allometric equations. The results are compared to a field survey of carbon pools and rmse values are presented. The dual-wavelength InSAR method could potentially be delivered from a spaceborne constellation similar to the TerraSAR system.     

Mapping surface fuel models using lidar and multispectral data fusion for fire behavior

Wild-land fires have become intense and more frequent all over the world. Improving the accuracy of mapping fuel models is essential for fuel management decisions and explicit fire behavior prediction for real-time support of suppression tactics and logistics decisions. The overall aim of this paper is to develop the use of lidar (LIght Detection and Ranging) remote sensing to accurately and effectively assess fuel models in East Texas. More specific goals include: (1) developing lidar derived products and the methodology to use them for assessing fuel models; (2) investigating the use of several techniques for data fusion of lidar and multispectral imagery for assessing fuel models; (3) investigating the gain in fuels mapping accuracy when using lidar as opposed to QuickBird imagery alone; and (4) producing spatially explicit digital fuel maps. Estimates of fuel models were compared with in-situ data collected over 62 plots. We employ a unique approach to classify fuel models using a combination of lidar height bins and multispectral image data. Different image processing approaches for fusing lidar and multispectral data, such as the Minimum Noise Fraction (MNF) and Principle Component Analysis (PCA), were used to improve the overall accuracy of image classification. Supervised image classification methods provided better accuracy (90.10%) with the fusion of airborne lidar data with QuickBird data than with QuickBird imagery alone (76.52%).According to our results, lidar derived data provide accurate estimates of surface fuel parameters efficiently and accurately over extensive areas of forests. This study demonstrates the importance of using accurate maps of fuel models derived using new lidar remote sensing techniques.     

Characterizing forest canopy structure with lidar composite metrics and machine learning

A lack of reliable observations for canopy science research is being partly overcome by the gradual use of lidar remote sensing. This study aims to improve lidar-based canopy characterization with airborne laser scanners through the combined use of lidar composite metrics and machine learning models. Our so-called composite metrics comprise a relatively large number of lidar predictors that tend to retain as much information as possible when reducing raw lidar point clouds into a format suitable as inputs to predictive models of canopy structural variables. The information-rich property of such composite metrics is further complemented by machine learning, which offers an array of supervised learning models capable of relating canopy characteristics to high-dimensional lidar metrics via complex, potentially nonlinear functional relationships. Using coincident lidar and field data over an Eastern Texas forest in USA, we conducted a case study to demonstrate the ubiquitous power of the lidar composite metrics in predicting multiple forest attributes and also illustrated the use of two kernel machines, namely, support vector machine and Gaussian processes (GP). Results show that the two machine learning models in conjunction with the lidar composite metrics outperformed traditional approaches such as the maximum likelihood classifier and linear regression models. For example, the five-fold cross validation for GP regression models (vs. linear/log-linear models) yielded a root mean squared error of 1.06 (2.36) m for Lorey's height, 0.95 (3.43) m for dominant height, 5.34 (8.51) m²/ha for basal area, 21.4 (40.5) Mg/ha for aboveground biomass, 6.54 (9.88) Mg/ha for belowground biomass, 0.75 (2.76) m for canopy base height, 2.2 (2.76) m for canopy ceiling height, 0.015 (0.02) kg/m³ for canopy bulk density, 0.068 (0.133) kg/m² for available canopy fuel, and 0.33 (0.39) m²/m² for leaf area index. Moreover, uncertainty estimates from the GP regression were more indicative of the true errors in the predicted canopy variables than those from their linear counterparts. With the ever-increasing accessibility of multisource remote sensing data, we envision a concomitant expansion in the use of advanced statistical methods, such as machine learning, to explore the potentially complex relationships between canopy characteristics and remotely-sensed predictors, accompanied by a desideratum for improved error analysis.     

The Comparison of Urban Tree Crown Extraction based on Airborne LiDARElevation Difference and High Resolution Imagery

With the support of airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data and high spatial resolution aerial imagery,this paper presents an individual tree extraction method that takes the region of urban as the study area.The elevation difference model originated from LiDAR data was used to extract regions of interest including trees. Then,masking was applied to the high spatial resolution aerial imagery to get the same regions. Besides,image segmentations,based on the marked watershed algorithm,were processed on the high spatial resolution aerial imagery and the elevation difference model separately to extract individual tree crowns. Finally,we took a visual interpretation to delineate tree crowns manually and this result was regarded as the reference crowns map. The extraction accuracies were assessed by comparing the spatial relationships of the reference crowns and the automated delineated tree crowns based on the elevation difference model and the high resolution imagery. The results show that the LiDAR data is developed to improve the efficiency of obtaining forest region that the canopy height model include 85.25% forest information. In addition,the tree crowns extraction accuracy based on the high resolution aerial imagery is 57.14%,while another extraction accuracy based on the elevation difference model is 42.47%,which indicated that the marked watershed algorithm proposed in this paper is effective and the high resolution imagery is better than the elevation difference model to extract tree crowns.     

Combining high spatial resolution multi-temporal satellite data with leaf-on LiDAR to enhance tree species discrimination at the crown level

ABSTRACT

The long-standing goal of discriminating tree species at the crown-level from high spatial resolution imagery remains challenging. The aim of this study is to evaluate whether combining (a) high spatial resolution multi-temporal images from different phenological periods (spring, summer and autumn), and (b) leaf-on LiDAR height and intensity data can enhance the ability to discriminate the species of individual tree crowns of red oak (Quercus rubra), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), and black cherry (Prunus serotina) in the Fernow Experimental Forest, West Virginia, USA. We used RandomForest models to measure a loss of classification accuracy caused by iteratively removing from the classification one or more groups from six groups of variables: spectral reflectance from all multispectral bands in the (1) spring, (2) summer, and (3) autumn images, (4) vegetation indices derived from the three multispectral datasets, (5) canopy height and intensity from the LiDAR imagery, and (6) texture related variables from the panchromatic and LiDAR datasets. We also used ANOVA and decision tree analyses to elucidate how the multispectral and LiDAR datasets combine to help discriminate tree species based on their unique phenological, spectral, textural, and crown architectural traits. From these results, we conclude that combing high spatial resolution multi-temporal satellite data with LiDAR datasets can enhance the ability to discriminate tree species at the crown level.     

Modeling forest songbird species richness using LiDAR-derived measures of forest structure

Conservation of biodiversity requires information at many spatial scales in order to detect and preserve habitat for many species, often simultaneously. Vegetation structure information is particularly important for avian habitat models and has largely been unavailable for large areas at the desired resolution. Airborne LiDAR, with its combination of relatively broad coverage and fine resolution provides existing new opportunities to map vegetation structure and hence avian habitat. Our goal was to model the richness of forest songbirds using forest structure information obtained from LiDAR data. In deciduous forests of southern Wisconsin, USA, we used discrete-return airborne LiDAR to derive forest structure metrics related to the height and density of vegetation returns, as well as composite variables that captured major forest structural elements. We conducted point counts to determine total forest songbird richness and the richness of foraging, nesting, and forest edge-related habitat guilds. A suite of 35 LiDAR variables were used to model bird species richness using best-subsets regression and we used hierarchical partitioning analysis to quantify the explanatory power of each variable in the multivariate models. Songbird species richness was correlated most strongly with LiDAR variables related to canopy and midstory height and midstory density (R² = 0.204, p < 0.001). Richness of species that nest in the midstory was best explained by canopy height variables (R² = 0.197, p < 0.001). Species that forage on the ground responded to mean canopy height and the height of the lower canopy (R² = 0.149, p < 0.005) while aerial foragers had higher richness where the canopy was tall and dense and the midstory more sparse (R² = 0.216, p < 0.001). Richness of edge-preferring species was greater where there were fewer vegetation returns but higher density in the understory (R² = 0.153, p < 0.005). Forest interior specialists responded positively to a tall canopy, developed midstory, and a higher proportion of vegetation returns (R² = 0.195, p < 0.001). LiDAR forest structure metrics explained between 15 and 20% of the variability in richness within deciduous forest songbird communities. This variability was associated with vertical structure alone and shows how LiDAR can provide a source of complementary predictive data that can be incorporated in models of wildlife habitat associations across broad geographical extents.     

Assessing the utility of airborne hyperspectral and LiDAR data for species distribution mapping in the coastal Pacific Northwest, Canada

To effectively manage forested ecosystems an accurate characterization of species distribution is required. In this study we assess the utility of hyperspectral Airborne Imaging Spectrometer for Applications (AISA) imagery and small footprint discrete return Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data for mapping 11 tree species in and around the Gulf Islands National Park Reserve, in coastal South-western Canada. Using hyperspectral imagery yielded producer's and user's accuracies for most species ranging from > 52-95.4 and > 63-87.8%, respectively. For species dominated by definable growth stages, pixel-level fusion of hyperspectral imagery with LiDAR-derived height and volumetric canopy profile data increased both producer's (+ 5.1-11.6%) and user's (+ 8.4-18.8%) accuracies. McNemar's tests confirmed that improvements in overall accuracies associated with the inclusion of LiDAR-derived structural information were statistically significant (p < 0.05). This methodology establishes a specific framework for mapping key species with greater detail and accuracy then is possible using conventional approaches (i.e., aerial photograph interpretation), or either technology on its own. Furthermore, in the study area, acquisition and processing costs were lower than a conventional aerial photograph interpretation campaign, making hyperspectral/LiDAR fusion a viable replacement technology.     

基于机载激光雷达数据的森林结构参数反演

机载激光雷达(Light Detection And Ranging,LiDAR)技术对植被空间结构和地形的探测能力较强,在植被参数定量测量和反演方面具有显著优势。首先利用野外调查并结合高分辨率Geoeye-1影像数据,对黑河上游天涝池流域植被类型进行分类,提取研究区森林分布,然后结合0.5m×0.5m机载激光雷达(LiDAR)数据对森林结构参数(树高、冠幅、胸径和叶面积指数)进行反演,最后利用实际观测数据对反演结果进行验证。结果表明:机载激光雷达数据能够精确地反演森林结构参数,树高、冠幅、胸径和叶面积指数的实测值与估测值决定系数分别为0.98、0.84、0.57和0.73。本研究获得流域森林覆盖区域高精度树冠高度和叶面积指数空间分布图,同时分析了冠层高度和叶面积指数随高度的变化。本研究的结果为该流域分布式生态水文模型提供了重要的输入参数。     

Airborne discrete-return LIDAR data in the estimation of vertical canopy cover, angular canopy closure and leaf area index

Remote sensing of forest canopy cover has been widely studied recently, but little attention has been paid to the quality of field validation data. Ecological literature has two different coverage metrics. Vertical canopy cover (VCC) is the vertical projection of tree crowns ignoring within-crown gaps. Angular canopy closure (ACC) is the proportion of covered sky at some angular range around the zenith, and can be measured with a field-of-view instrument, such as a camera. We compared field-measured VCC and ACC at 15° and 75° from the zenith to different LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) metrics, using several LiDAR data sets and comprehensive field data. The VCC was estimated to a high precision using a simple proportion of canopy points in first-return data. Confining to a maximum 15° scan zenith angle, the absolute root mean squared error (RMSE) was 3.7-7.0%, with an overestimation of 3.1-4.6%. We showed that grid-based methods are capable of reducing the inherent overestimation of VCC. The low scan angles and low power settings that are typically applied in topographic LiDARs are not suitable for ACC estimation as they measure in wrong geometry and cannot easily detect small within-crown gaps. However, ACC at 0-15° zenith angles could be estimated from LiDAR data with sufficient precision, using also the last returns (RMSE 8.1-11.3%, bias -6.1-+4.6%). The dependency of LiDAR metrics and ACC at 0-75° zenith angles was nonlinear and was modeled from laser pulse proportions with nonlinear regression with a best-case standard error of 4.1%. We also estimated leaf area index from the LiDAR metrics with linear regression with a standard error of 0.38. The results show that correlations between airborne laser metrics and different canopy field characteristics are very high if the field measurements are done with equivalent accuracy.     

An airborne lidar sampling strategy to model forest canopy height from Quickbird imagery and GEOBIA

High-resolution digital canopy models derived from airborne lidar data have the ability to provide detailed information on the vertical structure of forests. However, compared to satellite data of similar spatial resolution and extent, the small footprint airborne lidar data required to produce such models remain expensive. In an effort to reduce these costs, the primary objective of this paper is to develop an airborne lidar sampling strategy to model full-scene forest canopy height from optical imagery, lidar transects and Geographic Object-Based Image Analysis (GEOBIA). To achieve this goal, this research focuses on (i) determining appropriate lidar transect features (i.e., location, direction and extent) from an optical scene, (ii) developing a mechanism to model forest canopy height for the full-scene based on a minimum number of lidar transects, and (iii) defining an optimal mean object size (MOS) to accurately model the canopy composition and height distribution. Results show that (i) the transect locations derived from our optimal lidar transect selection algorithm accurately capture the canopy height variability of the entire study area; (ii) our canopy height estimation models have similar performance in two lidar transect directions (i.e., north-south and west-east); (iii) a small lidar extent (17.6% of total size) can achieve similar canopy height estimation accuracies as those modeled from the full lidar scene; and (iv) different MOS can lead to distinctly different canopy height results. By comparing the best canopy height estimate with the full lidar canopy height data, we obtained average estimation errors of 6.0 m and 6.8 m for conifer and deciduous forests at the individual tree crown/small tree cluster level, and an area weighted combined error of 6.2 m, which is lower than the provincial forest inventory height class interval (i.e., ≈ 9.0 m).     

GEDI地面高程和森林冠层高度的精度评价与影响分析

精确地提取地面高程和植被冠层高度,对于地形地貌、生态学等方面的研究具有重要意义。2018年12月发射的新一代全球生态系统动力学调查雷达（GEDI）为地面高程和植被冠层高度大范围精确提取提供了前所未有的机会。研究旨在利用机载激光雷达数据验证GEDI提取的地面高程和冠层高度精度,并探讨地理定位误差、地形坡度、坡向、植被覆盖度、方位角、采集时间、光束类型和不同森林类型因素对其精度的影响。结果表明：通过校正GEDI数据地理定位误差,可以明显提高其提取的地面高程和冠层高度精度;影响冠层高度提取精度最主要的因素是植被覆盖度,其次是坡度;影响地面高程提取精度的主要因素为坡向、坡度。植被覆盖度大于25%时,数据精度更高;坡度为0°—5°的缓坡地区地面高程和冠层高度精度最高。该研究结果将为GEDI数据筛选与应用提供依据。     

Modeling airborne laser scanning data for the spatial generation of critical forest parameters in fire behavior modeling

Methods for using airborne laser scanning (also called airborne LIDAR) to retrieve forest parameters that are critical for fire behavior modeling are presented. A model for the automatic extraction of forest information is demonstrated to provide spatial coverage of the study area, making it possible to produce 3-D inputs to improve fire behavior models.The Toposys I airborne laser system recorded the last return of each footprint (0.30-0.38 m) over a 2000 m by 190 m flight line. Raw data were transformed into height above the surface, eliminating the effect of terrain on vegetation height and allowing separation of ground surface and crown heights. Data were defined as ground elevation if heights were less than 0.6 m. A cluster analysis was used to discriminate crown base height, allowing identification of both tree and understory canopy heights. Tree height was defined as the 99 percentile of the tree crown height group, while crown base height was the 1 percentile of the tree crown height group. Tree cover (TC) was estimated from the fraction of total tree laser hits relative to the total number of laser hits. Surface canopy (SC) height was computed as the 99 percentile of the surface canopy group. Surface canopy cover is equal to the fraction of total surface canopy hits relative to the total number of hits, once the canopy height profile (CHP) was corrected. Crown bulk density (CBD) was obtained from foliage biomass (FB) estimate and crown volume (CV), using an empirical equation for foliage biomass. Crown volume was estimated as the crown area times the crown height after a correction for mean canopy cover.     

A comparison of multi-spectral, multi-angular, and multi-temporal remote sensing datasets for fractional shrub canopy mapping in Arctic Alaska

Shrub cover appears to be increasing across many areas of the Arctic tundra biome, and increasing shrub cover in the Arctic has the potential to significantly impact global carbon budgets and the global climate system. For most of the Arctic, however, there is no existing baseline inventory of shrub canopy cover, as existing maps of Arctic vegetation provide little information about the density of shrub cover at a moderate spatial resolution across the region. Remotely-sensed fractional shrub canopy maps can provide this necessary baseline inventory of shrub cover. In this study, we compare the accuracy of fractional shrub canopy (> 0.5 m tall) maps derived from multi-spectral, multi-angular, and multi-temporal datasets from Landsat imagery at 30 m spatial resolution, Moderate Resolution Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MODIS) imagery at 250 m and 500 m spatial resolution, and MultiAngle Imaging Spectroradiometer (MISR) imagery at 275 m spatial resolution for a 1067 km² study area in Arctic Alaska. The study area is centered at 69 °N, ranges in elevation from 130 to 770 m, is composed primarily of rolling topography with gentle slopes less than 10°, and is free of glaciers and perennial snow cover. Shrubs > 0.5 m in height cover 2.9% of the study area and are primarily confined to patches associated with specific landscape features. Reference fractional shrub canopy is determined from in situ shrub canopy measurements and a high spatial resolution IKONOS image swath. Regression tree models are constructed to estimate fractional canopy cover at 250 m using different combinations of input data from Landsat, MODIS, and MISR. Results indicate that multi-spectral data provide substantially more accurate estimates of fractional shrub canopy cover than multi-angular or multi-temporal data. Higher spatial resolution datasets also provide more accurate estimates of fractional shrub canopy cover (aggregated to moderate spatial resolutions) than lower spatial resolution datasets, an expected result for a study area where most shrub cover is concentrated in narrow patches associated with rivers, drainages, and slopes. Including the middle infrared bands available from Landsat and MODIS in the regression tree models (in addition to the four standard visible and near-infrared spectral bands) typically results in a slight boost in accuracy. Including the multi-angular red band data available from MISR in the regression tree models, however, typically boosts accuracy more substantially, resulting in moderate resolution fractional shrub canopy estimates approaching the accuracy of estimates derived from the much higher spatial resolution Landsat sensor. Given the poor availability of snow and cloud-free Landsat scenes in many areas of the Arctic and the promising results demonstrated here by the MISR sensor, MISR may be the best choice for large area fractional shrub canopy mapping in the Alaskan Arctic for the period 2000-2009.     

Quantifying the spatial properties of forest canopy gaps using LiDAR imagery and GIS

The spatial properties of gaps have an important influence upon the regeneration dynamics and species composition of forests. However, such properties can be difficult to quantify over large spatial areas using field measurements. This research considers how we conceptualize and define forest canopy gaps from a remote sensing point of view and highlights the inadequacies of passive optical remotely sensed data for delineating gaps. The study employs the analytical functions of a geographical information system to extract gap spatial characteristics from imagery acquired by an active remote sensing device, an airborne light detection and ranging instrument (LiDAR). These techniques were applied to an area of semi-natural broadleaved deciduous forest, in order to map gap size, shape complexity, vegetation height diversity and gap connectivity. A vegetation cover map derived from imagery from an airborne multispectral scanner was used in combination with the LiDAR data to characterize the dominant vegetation types within gaps. Although the quantification of these gap characteristics alone is insufficient to provide conclusive evidence on specific processes, the paper demonstrates how such information can be indicative of the general status of a forest and can provide new perspectives and possibilities or further ecological research and forest monitoring activities.     

Strengths and limitations of assessing forest density and spatial configuration with aerial LiDAR

Changes in the structural state of forests of the semi-arid U.S.A., such as an increase in tree density, are widely believed to be leading to an ecological crisis, but accurate methods of quantifying forest density and configuration are lacking at landscape scales. An individual tree canopy (ITC) method based on aerial LiDAR has been developed to assess forest structure by estimating the density and spatial configuration of trees in four different height classes. The method has been tested against field measured forest inventory data from two geographically distinct forests with independent LiDAR acquisitions. The results show two distinct patterns: accurate, unbiased density estimates for trees taller than 20 m, and underestimation of density in trees less than 20 m tall. The underestimation of smaller trees is suggested to be a limitation of LiDAR remote sensing. Ecological applications of the method are demonstrated through landscape metrics analysis of density and configuration rasters.     

Simulated impact of sample plot size and co-registration error on the accuracy and uncertainty of LiDAR-derived estimates of forest stand biomass

Regression has been widely applied in Light Detection And Ranging (LiDAR) remote sensing to spatially extend predictions of total aboveground biomass (TAGB) and other biophysical properties over large forested areas. Sample (field) plot size has long been considered a key sampling design parameter and focal point for optimization in forest surveys, because of its impact on sampling effort and the estimation accuracy of forest inventory attributes. In this study, we demonstrate how plot size and co-registration error interact to influence the estimation of LiDAR canopy height and density metrics, regression model coefficients, and the prediction accuracy of least-squares estimators of TAGB. We made use of simulated forest canopies and synthetic LiDAR point clouds, so that we could maintain strict control over the spatial scale and complexity of forest scenes, as well as the magnitude and type of planimetric error inherent in ground-reference and LiDAR datasets. Our results showed that predictions of TAGB improved markedly as plot size increased from 314 (10 m radius) to 1964 m² (25 m radius). The co-registration error (spatial overlap) between ground-reference and LiDAR samples negatively impacted the estimation of LiDAR metrics, regression model fit, and the prediction accuracy of TAGB. We found that larger plots maintained a higher degree of spatial overlap between ground-reference and LiDAR datasets for any given GPS error, and were therefore more resilient to the ill effects of co-registration error compared to small plots. The impact of co-registration error was more pronounced in tall, spatially heterogeneous stands than short, homogeneous stands. We identify and briefly discuss three possible ways that LiDAR data could be used to optimize plot size, sample selection, and the deployment of GPS resources in forest biomass surveys.     

A pseudo-waveform technique to assess forest structure using discrete lidar data

The use of airborne laser scanning systems (lidar) to describe forest structure has increased dramatically since height profiling experiments nearly 30 years ago. The analyses in most studies employ a suite of frequency-based metrics calculated from the lidar height data, which are systematically eliminated from a full model using stepwise multiple linear regression. The resulting models often include highly correlated predictors with little physical justification for model formulation. We propose a method to aggregate discrete lidar height and intensity measurements into larger footprints to create “pseudo-waves”. Specifically, the returns are first sorted into height bins, sliced into narrow discrete elements, and finally smoothed using a spline function. The resulting “pseudo-waves” have many of the same characteristics of traditional waveform lidar data. We compared our method to a traditional frequency-based method to estimate tree height, canopy structure, stem density, and stand biomass in coniferous and deciduous stands in northern Wisconsin (USA). We found that the pseudo-wave approach had strong correlations for nearly all tree measurements including height (cross validated adjusted R² (R²_cv) = 0.82, RMSE_cv = 2.09 m), mean stem diameter (R²_cv = 0.64, RMSE_cv = 6.15 cm), total aboveground biomass (R²_cv = 0.74, RMSE_cv = 74.03 kg ha^− 1), and canopy coverage (R²_cv = 0.79, RMSE_cv = 5%). Moreover, the type of wave (derived from height and intensity or from height alone) had little effect on model formulation and fit. When wave-based and frequency-based models were compared, fit and mean square error were comparable, leading us to conclude that the pseudo-wave approach is a viable alternative because it has 1) an increased breadth of available metrics; 2) the potential to establish new meaningful metrics that capture unique patterns within the waves; 3) the ability to explain metric selection based on the physical structure of forests; and 4) lower correlation among independent variables.