Effects of high temperatures on dynamic rock fracture

The dynamic fracture toughness of Fangshan gabbro and Fangshan marble subjected to high temperature was measured by means of the split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) system. The specimens for measuring the fracture toughness were manufactured according to the requirements for the Short Rod (SR) specimen suggested by ISRM. Two cases were investigated: (1) the SR specimens of the gabbro and marble were fractured at high temperature (100–330°C), and (2) the specimens of the rocks were first pre-heat-treated at 200°C for the marble and 600°C for the gabbro, and then fractured at room temperature. The experimental results showed that under dynamic loading the fracture toughness of both the gabbro and the marble tested in the above-mentioned cases increased with increasing loading rates. The relationship between the fracture toughness and the loading rates in the two cases is similar to that obtained in the room temperature environment, i.e., without high temperature. (This is defined as the third case.) It can be concluded that temperature variation affects the dynamic fracture toughness of the two rocks to a limited extent within the temperature ranges tested. This is different from the results obtained under the static loading condition. Furthermore, by means of the scanning electronic microscope (SEM), the vertical sections of the fracture surfaces for some gabbro specimens were examined. In addition, the fractal dimensions of the fracture surfaces of some specimens were measured by means of fractal geometry. The results showed that under dynamic loading: (1) macro-crack branching near the fracture surfaces was universal; (2) the fractal dimensions increased with increasing loading rates; (3) in the sections of the specimens tested at high temperature there were many micro-cracks that were probably induced by thermal cracking. On the basis of the above macro- and micro-experimental investigation, an energy analysis of the process of dynamic rock fracture was performed. The results showed that the energy utilisation in dynamic fracture was much lower than that in static fracture.     

Effects of substrate loading rate on biofilm structure

The effects of substrate surface loading rate on biofilm growth and structure were investigated by chemical, biochemical and microscopic methods. Three tubular reactors were operated at equal C:N ratio of 0.1, with substrate loading rates of 1.2, 0.6 and 0.3g-C/m(2)/day. Substrate loading positively influenced the biofilm growth rate. Denser biofilms with lower porosities were formed at higher substrate loading. Slowly growing biofilms having porous structures were found to have higher specific activities. Nitrification was suppressed under the higher substrate loading conditions even at the equal C:N ratio of 0.1, thus proving that the spatial competition between nitrifiers and heterotrophs as one limiting criteria for stable nitrification. The spatial organization of the ammonia oxidizers was biofilm structure related. The strain variability of ammonia oxidizers was substrate loading dependent. These findings suggest that substrate loading is a key parameter in determining biofilm structure and function.     

A new testing method for investigating the loading rate dependency of peak and residual rock strength

One of the important methods for investigating viscoelasticity is to measure the loading-rate dependency of peak strength; however, no experimental method has been established for accurately measuring the loading-rate dependency of peak strength from a small number of samples. In this study we propose such a method. A single sample is loaded at alternating strain rates to obtain stress–strain curves for both strain rates. The loading-rate dependency of peak strength obtained via this method was compared with the findings of conventional methods. The loading-rate dependency indicated for Tage tuff, Sanjome andesite and Akiyoshi marble was nearly identical to previous results obtained using conventional methods, including results obtained under confining pressure. The loading-rate dependency of peak strength in these experiments shows a close relation with the creep stress-dependency of creep life. We also investigated the loading-rate dependency of the stress–strain curve for the post-failure region for which few results have been published. Under confining pressure, the corrected stress–strain curve, obtained by multiplying the stress of the complete stress–strain curve obtained at the fast strain rate by a constant determined by the ratio between the fast strain rate and slow strain rate, is nearly coincident with the stress–strain curve for the slow strain rate. This is an interesting result and represents new knowledge that may help elucidate failure mechanisms in the post-failure region. The loading-rate dependency of stress in the alternating strain rate experiment proposed here was most clearly observed when the stress–strain curve becomes flat, parallel to the strain axis. Some improvements to the proposed method are required to enable accurate investigations of loading-rate dependency during low stresses immediately after initiation of loading or during the abrupt decreases in stress that occur following peak strength.     

Multifractal characterization of rock fracture surfaces

The multifractal behavior of rock fracture surfaces is studied taking into account fractal heterogeneity and anisotropy of surface structures. A projective covering method (PCM) is proposed and used to estimate directly the fractal dimension D_s[2, 3) of a fracture surface. The study indicates that the multifractal spectrum of the fracture surfaces provide much additional information on the fracture mechanism and the distribution of asperity concentration on the surface. The fracture surfaces induced in rocks under different failure mechanisms display distinct multifractal behavior.     

岩石中断裂力学的研究

在断裂力学的基础上,研究了岩石破坏类型和受压裂缝的扩展,并对微裂缝演化进行了探讨,提出利用断裂力学中的裂纹尖端应力和应变场的分布情况,可以预测和制止岩体的失稳。基于能量平衡建立岩石裂纹的扩展条件,进而导出断裂稳定性准则。指出岩石断裂力学中存在的一些问题,并对研究要点进行了总结,为岩石断裂问题研究提供了理论依据。     

强冲击荷载下岩石材料断裂及破碎机制研究

脆性材料如岩石、混凝土和陶瓷等在冲击荷载作用下的动态力学特征及破碎机制研究涉及力学,物理学,航空航天,能源开采和防护工程等多个领域。具体问题如同震作用中的断层泥形成及非对称粉碎化,行星撞击产生的陨石坑,飞行器对空间站的超高速撞击与防护,采矿过程中的矿石破碎尺寸控制,工程爆破过程中的破岩效率提高和灾害防治,炮弹壳体的破碎以及超高速弹穿甲等。岩石材料的静态,动态及动静组合下的力学响应研究已经取得了丰硕成果,相比之下,岩石材料在冲击荷载下的细观断裂机制和破碎特征方面研究还颇为不足。脆性材料在宽应变率尺度上是否存在统一的归一化强度形式?材料的动态力学特性与过渡性破碎现象的内在联系是什么?如何理解缺陷材料在冲击过程中的裂纹成核、发展及交汇对破碎成形的影响?这些问题已经严重地阻碍了我们对脆性材料在极限荷载作用下的认识。针对上述问题,在国家自然科学基金重点项目和国家建设高水平大学公派研究生项目的资助下,(1)研究材料在冲击荷载作用下的力学特征;(2)了解脆性材料的冲击破碎机制两个方面工作为基础,采用室内试验,理论模型和数值模拟开展了强冲击荷载下岩石材料的强度,断裂和破碎特性方面的研究。在力学试验方面,采用霍普金森压杆装置研究了花岗岩石在冲击劈裂下的试验条件和力学特征,提出了动抗拉强度因子在高应变率范围存在Ⅰ,Ⅱ和Ⅲ个区域,结合高速摄像系统和DIC方法验证了圆盘中心起裂条件;解释了由边界失效引起的Ⅲ区强度异常的原因。通过数字图像处理技术获得连续尺寸范围内的碎块尺寸;对比了传统电测应变法和DIC法测量精度的差异,研究了冲击劈裂试验中的残余动能和能量分布,提出了劈裂→劈裂+压裂→非对称压裂→边界失效冲击破碎演变形式。同时,得到了花岗岩在冲击压缩中存在的Ⅰ,Ⅱ类破坏模式,从断裂强度与应变率、残余应变与断裂应变、耗散能量与应变率的关系讨论了临界应变率的确定方法。结合自主开发的数字图像碎片分析系统研究了不同应变率下的碎片分布和特征尺寸,基于有限长三维柱状模型建立了多重破碎能量模型,成功解释了高应变率下材料灾难性破碎的成因。进一步地采用三轴霍普金森压杆装置研究了不同围压条件下岩石的强度特征和破坏准则。发现当围压一定时,材料的破坏强度随应变率增加逐渐增加,对于不同围压条件,应变率效应基本一致。强度随应变率的变化关系可以近似为线性,归一化强度因子随应变率呈线性增加,同时也随围压增加而增加。在相同应变率范围内的强度随围压的变化关系可以用Hoek-Brown准则解释。结合CT和SEM扫描技术研究了围压状态下岩石的细观破坏现象及三维损伤特征,重构结果显示低围压下的试样破坏主要以平行于最大主应力方向的拉伸裂纹扩展为主,而围压的提高一定程度上增加了剪切滑移的可能性,同时伴随大范围的晶体破碎。在理论模型方面,通过建立压应力状态下岩石动断裂滑移模型研究了脆性材料由于微裂纹扩展引起的非线性应变细观机制及对宏观本构关系的影响;通过提出过渡性压剪裂纹模型修正了传统模型在近端场的误差,结合Freund逼近解提出了统一的幂数型裂纹动态扩展准则,基于Catigiano能量平衡原理推导了矩阵形式的非线性应变计算公式。分析了微裂纹在压剪过程中的闭合、线性滑移、自相似扩展以及翼裂纹弯折等阶段的力学机制和影响因素。进一步拓展至考虑裂纹相互作用的裂隙岩体模型,讨论了归一化无量纲应变率模型和特征参量的物理意义。在数值模拟方面,考虑到试验技术和理论分析对研究多尺度非均质岩石冲击损伤行为问题的不足,提出基于岩石真实细观结构建模的多尺度离散元方法,通过建立不同断裂模型考虑了晶体边界的弱化作用,同时借助FPZ模型描述了晶体内部的穿晶破坏形式。考虑晶体破坏特征的GBM更能真实反应岩石的微观力学特征,在应力应变行为和微破裂方面很好地模拟了花岗岩试验结果。创新性地结合纳米压痕技术获得不同矿物成分的细观力学参数,提出了推荐性离散元标定方法,简化了GBM的标定程序,很大程度上提高了GBM的适用范围。最后将其应用于研究岩石率效应机制、动态破碎及多尺度损伤研究。发现岩石裂纹起裂和损伤应力阈值在裂纹体应变变化和声发射破裂等行为上表现出相似性。动载荷作用下的损伤演化与静载荷作用下的损伤演化有明显的不同。在动载荷作用下,Weibull分布表现出较宽的形状尺寸和较大的平均尺度。微裂纹从晶间断裂向穿晶断裂的转变导致了不同的宏观破坏特征。单个断裂或轻微碎裂的试样是由断裂面与以晶间断裂为主的分支裂纹共同形成。相反,粉碎状破裂的岩石是穿晶裂纹聚集在裂缝表面周围的结果,进而形成大范围剪切带。细观尺度上的沿晶破裂向穿晶破裂转换被认为是应变率效应机制和冲击粉碎化破碎的根本原因。     

保持加载下岩石变形记忆效应时效特征规律研究

作为岩石基本属性的变形记忆效应(deformation memory effect,DME)具有时效特性,加载保持时间(T_c)对岩石DME的影响是其时效特性之一。选用砂岩及2种花岗岩材料,开展不同T_c下的物理试验,对记忆信息形成精度及应变差幅值等进行分析,并基于岩石内部多微结构面间的黏弹性摩擦滑动理论,采用岩石三元件构建基本记忆单元理论模型,进行不同T_c下DME力学理论研究,结果表明:(1)随T_c增加,2种花岗岩和砂岩的记忆信息形成精度明显提高,应变差幅值逐渐减小;(2)记忆理论模型的记忆信息形成精度和应变差幅值的变化规律和物理试验保持一致,即基于多微结构面的记忆理论模型能够描述不同T_c下的岩石DME宏观行为;(3) T_c增加到一定幅度时,记忆信息形成精度和应变差幅值趋于不变,并提出当应变差幅值稳定时,此时为最佳T_c。结论给出了保持加载下岩石DME时效特性变化规律,为岩石DME时效性研究提供了试验及理论基础。     

盐岩动态拉伸特性的试验研究

采用SHPB试验装置对盐岩平台巴西圆盘试样实施了动荷载试验,获得了盐岩在动荷载下的拉伸强度,并与静态实验进行了比较,结果表明盐岩的动态拉伸强度具有明显的应变率相关性。     

Responses of jointed rock masses subjected to impact loading

Impact-induced damage to jointed rock masses has important consequences in various mining and civil engineering applications. This paper reports a numerical investigation to address the responses of jointed rock masses subjected to impact loading. It also focuses on the static and dynamic properties of an intact rock derived from a series of laboratory tests on meta-sandstone samples from a quarry in Nova Scotia, Canada. A distinct element code (PFC2D) was used to generate a bonded particle model (BPM) to simulate both the static and dynamic properties of the intact rock. The calibrated BPM was then used to construct large-scale jointed rock mass samples by incorporating discrete joint networks of multiple joint intensities into the intact rock matrix represented by the BPM. Finally, the impact-induced damage inflicted by a rigid projectile particle on the jointed rock mass samples was determined through the use of the numerical model. The simulation results show that joints play an important role in the impact-induced rock mass damage where higher joint intensity results in more damage to the rock mass. This is mainly attributed to variations of stress wave propagation in jointed rock masses as compared to intact rock devoid of joints.     

冲击荷载作用下岩石动力特性的试验研究

应用高压气枪冲击试验设备对大理岩样进行了不同固体冲击速度下的冲击试验,探讨岩石类材料在冲击荷载下作用下的破坏过程和动力特性。共对9组大理岩样进行了冲击试验,试验时固体冲击速度逐渐增加,速度范围是126.2～531.9m/s。得到的初步试验结果如下:当固体冲击速度较低时,岩样整体没有崩解破碎,局部发生破碎,且随着冲击速度的增大,产生的微裂纹会逐渐增多;当固体冲击速度较高时,岩样整体发生崩解破碎,且随着固体冲击速度的增大,破碎后的岩样中细颗粒的含量增大,即随着固体冲击能的增大,岩样的破碎程度逐渐增加。     

岩石断裂和损伤的研究现状

从岩石断裂和损伤力学角度以及细观角度对岩石的断裂和损伤理论的研究现状进行了综述分析,指出岩石强度理论的研究由经典强度理论向断裂强度理论、损伤强度理论发展。     

锚杆布置对岩石锚固体承载力影响的数值试验

在探讨岩石锚固机理和计算模型基础上,提出了锚固岩石的承载力的三维数值试验方法,采用速度边界控制加载,进行了不同密度、不同数量、不同布置方向的锚杆的条件下岩石承载力的数值试验,并得出了承载力变化规律。     

碎石颗粒的压缩变形与破碎特性

基于颗粒流软件PFC2D,建立了颗粒接触本构模型,考虑不同孔隙率的大颗粒对压缩结果的影响,分别模拟了孔隙率为0.1,0.16,0.2,0.25四种颗粒在单轴压缩下的破碎与变形过程,为探究碎石颗粒的压缩变形和破碎特性提供了新的方法。     

Numerical study on static and dynamic fracture evolution around rock cavities

In this paper, a numerical code, RFPA^2D (rock failure process analysis), was used to simulate the initiation and propagation of fractures around a pre-existing single cavity and multiple cavities in brittle rocks. Both static and dynamic loads were applied to the rock specimens to investigate the mechanism of fracture evolution around the cavities for different lateral pressure coefficients. In addition, characteristics of acoustic emission (AE) associated with fracture evolution were simulated. Finally, the evolution and interaction of fractures between multiple cavities were investigated with consideration of stress redistribution and transference in compressive and tensile stress fields. The numerically simulated results reproduced primary tensile, remote, and shear crack fractures, which are in agreement with the experimental results. Moreover, numerical results suggested that both compressive and tensile waves could influence the propagation of tensile cracks; in particular, the reflected tensile wave accelerated the propagation of tensile cracks.     

断裂力学及其在岩体工程中的应用初探

介绍了断裂力学的基本理论,包括应力强度因子的计算、裂纹扩展方向和断裂判据,并对岩石断裂力学研究中所涉及的岩石破坏机理和岩石断裂韧度进行了阐述,以供参考。     

Effects of confining pressure and temperature on mixed-mode (I–II) fracture toughness of a limestone rock

Studying fracture toughness behavior at elevated temperatures and confining pressures is valuable for a number of practical situations such as hydraulic fracturing used to enhance oil and gas recovery from a reservoir, and the disposal or safe storage of radioactive waste in underground cavities. Mixed-mode (I–II) fracture toughness under simulated reservoir conditions of high temperature and confining pressure was studied using straight notched Brazilian disk (SNBD) specimens under diametrical compression. Rock samples were collected from a limestone formation outcropping in the Central Province of Saudi Arabia. Tests were conducted under an effective confining pressure (σ₃) of up to 28 MPa (4000 psi), and a temperature of up to 116°C. The results show a substantial increase in fracture toughness under confining pressure. The pure mode-I fracture toughness (K_IC) increased by a factor of about 3.7 under a σ₃ of 28 MPa compared to that under ambient conditions. The variation of K_IC was found to be linearly proportional to σ₃. The pure mode-II fracture toughness (K_IIC) increased by a factor of 2.4 upon increasing σ₃ to 28 MPa. On the other hand, K_IC at 116°C was only 25% more than that at ambient conditions. Some ductile behavior was displayed by the rock samples at a high temperature and confining pressure.