Image restoration in computed tomography: estimation of the spatially variant point spread function

An indirect method for determining the point-spread-function (PSF) in computed tomography (CT) is described. Unlike experimental techniques in which a resolution phantom is scanned to obtain the system PSF, the approach estimates the parameters of a model which describes the two-dimensional X-ray beam profile at each point as a convolution of the appropriately scaled focal spot intensity and detector sensitivity distributions. The model was validated by experimental measurement of the focal spot intensity distribution. Using known X-ray beam profiles, the PSF of a CT scanner can be derived by simulating the data collection process and applying conventional image reconstruction techniques. Visual comparison of directly measured and computed PSFs reveals an asymmetry resulting from misregistration of the phantom wires and the image grid.     

Improved SPECT quantitation using fully three-dimensional iterative spatially variant scatter response compensation

The quality and quantitative accuracy of iteratively reconstructed SPECT images improves when better point spread function (PSF) models of the gamma camera are used during reconstruction. Here, inclusion in the PSF model of photon crosstalk between different slices caused by limited gamma camera resolution and scatter is examined. A three-dimensional (3-D) projector back-projector (proback) has been developed which models both the distance dependent detector point spread function and the object shape-dependent scatter point spread function of single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). A table occupying only a few megabytes of memory is sufficient to represent this scatter model. The contents of this table are obtained by evaluating an analytical expression for object shape-dependent scatter. The proposed approach avoids the huge memory requirements of storing the full transition matrix needed for 3-D reconstruction including object shape-dependent scatter. In addition, the method avoids the need for lengthy Monte Carlo simulations to generate such a matrix. In order to assess the quantitative accuracy of the method, reconstructions of a water filled cylinder containing regions of different activity levels and of simulated 3-D brain projection data have been evaluated for technetium-99m. It is shown that fully 3-D reconstruction including complete detector response and object shape-dependent scatter modeling clearly outperforms simpler methods that lack a complete detector response and/or a complete scatter response model. Fully 3-D scatter correction yields the best quantitation of volumes of interest and the best contrast-to-noise curves.     

Development and validation of a Monte Carlo simulation of photon transport in an Anger camera

The geometric component of the point spread function (PSF) of a gamma camera collimator can be determined analytically, and the penetration component can be calculated readily by numerical ray-tracing. A Monte Carlo simulation of photon transport which includes collimator scatter is developed. The simulation was implemented with an array processor which propagates up to 1024 photons in parallel, allowing accurate estimates of the total radial PSF in less than a day. The simulation was tested by imaging monoenergetic point sources of Tc-99m, Cr-51, and Sr-85 (140, 320, and 514 keV, respectively) on a General Electric Star Cam with low-energy, general-purpose, and medium-energy collimators. Comparisons of measured and simulated PSFs demonstrate the validity of the model and the significance of collimator scatter in the degradation of image quality.     

面心立方3维光子晶体带隙数值研究

为了数值研究面心立方晶格球形散射体3维光子晶体能带结构,采用平面波展开方法分别计算了空气中的介质球与介质中的空气球在不同参量下的能带.结果表明,空气中的介质球不论选任何参量都不出现完全禁带,介质中的空气球在选取适当参量时能出现禁带,禁带宽度与适当空气球半径、适当基质介电常数的关系相似,禁带位置中心坐标与适当空气球半径、适当基质介电常数的关系相反.此结论推广和补充了相关文献的研究.     

面心立方3维光子晶体带隙数值研究

为了数值研究面心立方晶格球形散射体3维光子晶体能带结构,采用平面波展开方法分别计算了空气中的介质球与介质中的空气球在不同参量下的能带。结果表明,空气中的介质球不论选任何参量都不出现完全禁带,介质中的空气球在选取适当参量时能出现禁带,禁带宽度与适当空气球半径、适当基质介电常数的关系相似,禁带位置中心坐标与适当空气球半径、适当基质介电常数的关系相反。此结论推广和补充了相关文献的研究。     

Image restoration in computed tomography: the spatially invariant point spread function

Image restoration to deblur smoothing caused by the finite-size X-ray beam profile for a simulated computed tomography (CT) system is presented. Three simple image restoration methods are compared when the point-spread-function (PSF) is spatially invariant. In the first restoration method, an iterative least squares solution, regularized with the image norm and constrained by the boundary of the object, is obtained from the projection data. In the second method, a Wiener filter, designed using the power spectrum of CT noise, is applied to the reconstructed CT image. The third method obtains a weighted least-squares solution, by iteration, from the reconstructed CT image; the solution is regularized with the weighted image norm. Restored images were compared with the image obtained using filtered backprojection method. Differences between these images were evaluated qualitatively.     

Modeling assemblies of biological cells exposed to electric fields

Gap junctions are channels through the cell membrane that electrically connect the interiors of neighboring cells. Most cells are connected by gap junctions, and gaps play an important role in local intercellular communication by allowing for the exchange of certain substances between cells. Gap communication has been observed to change when cells are exposed to electromagnetic (EM) fields. In this work, the authors examine the behavior of cells connected by gap junctions when exposed to electric fields, in order to better understand the influence of the presence of gap junctions on cell behavior. This may provide insights into the interactions between biological cells and weak, low-frequency EM fields. Specifically, the authors model gaps in greater detail than is usually the case, and use the finite element method (FEM) to solve the resulting geometrically complex cell models. The responses of gap-connected cell configurations to both dc and time harmonic fields are investigated and compared with those of similarly shaped (equivalent) cells. To further assess the influence of the gap junctions, properties such as gap size, shape, and conductivity are varied. The authors' findings indicate that simple models, such as equivalent cells, are sufficient for describing the behavior of small gap connected cell configurations exposed to dc electric fields. With larger configurations, some adjustments to the simple models are necessary to account for the presence of the gaps. The gap junctions complicate the frequency behavior of gap-connected cell assemblies. An equivalent cell exhibits lowpass behavior. Gaps effectively add a bandstop filter in series with the low-pass behavior, thus lowering the relaxation frequency. The characteristics of this bandstop filter change with changes to gap properties. Comparison of the FEM results to those obtained with simple models indicates that more complex models are required to represent gap-connected cells     

Image identification and restoration in the subband domain

When faced with a large support point spread function (PSF), the iterative expectation-maximization (EM) algorithm, which is often used for PSF identification, is very sensitive to the initial PSF estimate. To deal with this problem, the authors propose to do EM image identification and restoration in the subband domain. After the image is first divided into subbands, the EM algorithm is applied to each subband separately. Since the PSF can be taken to have smaller support in each subband, these subbands should be less of a problem with the EM model identification. They also introduce an adaptive subband EM method for use in the upper frequency subbands.     

A regularized deconvolution-fitting method for Compton-scatter correction in SPECT

A method is presented for estimating the Compton-scatter component within the photopeak for local energy spectra measured by an Anger camera in SPECT. Assuming that the measured energy spectrum is the source scatter energy distribution convolved with a known camera energy-resolution function plus an unscattered spectral component, a least-square inverse operation is performed to recover the source scatter distribution. Since this inverse operation is ill-posed, the regularization technique is applied for stabilization. With the method, scatter fractions similar to those from polynomial spectral fitting (PSF) have been observed for experimentally measured, high-count data with a hot (Tc(99m) or I(131)) sphere in a cold cylinder, and the inverse (Tc(99m) only). The method is also less sensitive to the width of the fitting window. A regularization parameter from 1 to 10 is recommended for practical cases. The shape of a recovered source scatter distribution matches that determined by a high-resolution semiconductor-detector measurement as well as by Monte Carlo simulation.     

Computing the scatter component of mammographic images

The authors build upon a technical report (Tech. Report OUEL 2009/93, Engng. Sci., Oxford Uni., Oxford, UK, 1993) in which they proposed a model of the mammographic imaging process for which scattered radiation is a key degrading factor. Here, the authors propose a way of estimating the scatter component of the signal at any pixel within a mammographic image, and they use this estimate for model-based image enhancement. The first step is to extend the authors' previous model to divide breast tissue into "interesting" (fibrous/glandular/cancerous) tissue and fat. The scatter model is then based on the idea that the amount of scattered radiation reaching a point is related to the energy imparted to the surrounding neighbourhood. This complex relationship is approximated using published empirical data, and it varies with the size of the breast being imaged. The approximation is further complicated by needing to take account of extra-focal radiation and breast edge effects. The approximation takes the form of a weighting mask which is convolved with the total signal (primary and scatter) to give a value which is input to a "scatter function", approximated using three reference cases, and which returns a scatter estimate. Given a scatter estimate, the more important primary component can be calculated and used to create an image recognizable by a radiologist. The images resulting from this process are clearly enhanced, and model verification tests based on an estimate of the thickness of interesting tissue present proved to be very successful. A good scatter model opens the was for further processing to remove the effects of other degrading factors, such as beam hardening.     

Directional Reflectance Distributions of a Hardwood and Pine Forest Canopy

The directional reflectance distributions for both a hardwood and pine forest canopy at Beltsville, Maryland, were measured in June as a function of sun angle from a helicopter platform using a hand-held radiometer with AVHRR band 1 (0.58-0.68 ?m) and band 2 (0.73-1.1 ?m). Canopy characteristics were measured on the ground. The reflectance distributions are reported and compared to the scattering behavior of agricultural and natural grassland canopies. In addition, the three-dimensional radiative transfer model of Kimes was used to document the unique radiant transfers that take place in forest canopies due to their special geometric structure. Measurements and model simulations showed that the scattering behavior of relatively dense forest canopies is similar to the scattering behavior of agricultural crops and natural grasslands. Only in more sparse forest canopies with significant spacing between the tree crowns (or clumps of tree crowns) does the scattering behavior deviate from homogeneous agricultural and natural grassland canopies. This clumping of vegetation material has two effects on the radiant transfers within the canopy: A) it increases the probability of gap to the understory and/or soil layers that increases the influence of the scattering properties of these lower layers; and B) it increases the number of low transmitting clumps of vegetation within the scene causing increased backscatter and decreased forward scatter to occur relative to the homogeneous case. Both effects, referred to as phenomenon A and B, respectively, tend to increase backscatter relative to forward scatter.     

基于简缩极化数据的三分量分解模型

基于部分极化波的二分理论,提出了一种针对简缩极化数据的三分量分解模型。该模型将简缩极化数据的Jones相干矩阵分解成表面散射、偶次散射和体散射三种散射机制Jones相干矩阵之和,进一步得到这三种散射机制各自的散射功率。选取德国根多夫市普拉特灵(Plattling)地区的TerraSAR-X全极化数据生成简缩极化数据,用提出的三分量分解模型对得到的简缩极化数据进行分解,并将分解结果与全极化数据的Pauli分解结果进行对比。实验结果表明:提出的简缩极化数据三分量分解模型能够很好地描述表面散射和体散射的散射行为。但是,相比全极化数据的分解结果,提出的模型高估了体散射分量,导致偶次散射分量偏小,这个问题需要进一步的研究来解决。     

Ge基二维三角晶格光子晶体的光子带隙

导出了二维三角晶格光子晶体的填充系数与正多边形散射子外接圆半径的普适关系,并利用平面波展开法计算了Ge基二维三角晶格光子晶体的光子带隙.计算表明:Ge圆柱置于空气背景中时,可产生TM、TE带隙,TM带隙占优势;随着Ge填充系数的增大,光子带隙的宽度先增大后减小,其中心频率由高频向低频移动;TM模第一带隙宽度在半径为0.14a处达峰值.空气圆柱置于Ge背景中时,可产生TM、TE及完全带隙,TE带隙占优势;随着空气填充系数的增大,光子带隙的宽度先增大后减小,其中心频率由低频向高频移动;TE模第一带隙宽度和最大完全带隙宽度分别在半径为0.46a和0.49a处达峰值.     

Defect detection algorithm for wafer inspection based on laserscanning

A defect detection algorithm for wafer inspection based on laser scanning is presented. Microscopic anomalies, contaminants, and process induced pattern defects result in a two-dimensional (2-D) laser scattering signature, which closely resembles the coherent point-spread-function of the scanning laser beam. This point-spread-function is a 2-D Gaussian in the majority of cases and can be characterized by four parameters. The algorithm fits Gaussian surfaces to sampled data points. Events are accepted or rejected on the basis of how similar the Gaussian parameters are to that of the point-spread-function, known a priori. It is shown that the algorithm achieves a 95% capture for submicron particles and pattern defects on typical logic and array wafer regions. Results demonstrating the algorithm's performance relative to mechanical and electronic noise and to signal resolution are presented     

距离选通水下激光成像系统信噪比分析与计算

距离选通水下激光成像系统是一种基于时间标记原理的水下光电成像系统,它能够有效抑制水体后向散射光的干扰,提高目标探测距离,具有较高的军事和民用价值。在距离选通水下激光成像系统中,ICCD可能接收到的光信号包括水体后向散射光、目标反射直射光、以及目标反射光的前向散射光。建立了ICCD接收信号光能量的几何模型,在给定开门时刻和选通门宽参数条件下,给出了通过点扩散函数计算ICCD像元上所能接收到的目标反射光的直射光及其所引起的水体前向散射光能量的方法,以及通过水体分层计算水体后向散射光的方法,定义了距离选通水下激光成像系统信噪比,分析了目标距离对信噪比的影响并给出了仿真结果。     

A practical tropospheric scatter model using the parabolic equation

A simple method that accounts for tropospheric scatter using the parabolic equation portion of the radio physical optics (RPO) model is described. RPO is a hybrid propagation model that combines ray-optics and parabolic-equation methods to assess realistic range-dependent tropospheric effects at frequencies from 100 MHz to 20 GHz. A semiempirical scatter model adds a random refractive-index fluctuation to the mean refractive-index value at each height considered by the parabolic equation method. The results of this scatter model are compared with those of another scatter model and with a few sample radio measurements     

Penetration depths inferred from interferometric volume decorrelation observed over the Greenland Ice Sheet

Radar interferometry provides a novel way to study the subsurface of glaciers: interferometric correlation. Since the two complex images that comprise the interferogram have slightly different incidence angles at each point on the ground, a decorrelating phase noise, with statistics related to the scattering medium, is present in the interferogram. The amount of "surface" decorrelation is increased by volume scatter. The larger the vertical extent of the scatterers contributing to the radar echo, the greater the decorrelation will be. By modeling this effect, the authors can estimate radio wave penetration depths within the upper layers of the glacier or ice sheet. Observations of the Greenland Ice Sheet using ERS data yield penetration depths (one-way, 1/e point for power) that range from 12 to 35 m. Due to the contribution of volume scatter, the critical interferometer baseline is decreased, and the authors find for the Greenland data, the baseline must be restricted to be less than 300 m. The authors also compare penetration depths measured within the dry snow zone with those found in the percolation zone and coastal areas. They find that as expected, the rocky coastal areas evidence minimal penetration. Interestingly, the penetration depths that the authors measure in the percolation zone, /spl sim/23 m, indicate a large degree of volume scatter, which is contrary to earlier results that found the scattering in the percolation zone dominated by structures in the first few meters. This discrepancy may be due to unmodeled scattering behavior, or the radar return may indeed include significant contributions from scatterers far beneath the surface.     

Microwave breakdown on a symmetrically excited conical reentry vehicle

Predictions and measurements of microwave breakdown in air are compared for a conical reentry vehicle model with an overall length of approximately one wavelength. The vehicle is excited by means of a circumferential gap to form an asymmetric dipole with roll-symmetric radiation. Measurements performed in an evacuable chamber show breakdown occurring at either the nose tip or the feed gap, or simultaneously in both regions, depending upon the gas pressure. The electric fields are computed as functions of distance radially from the nose tip and normally from the feed gap by the use of moment methods. The breakdown calculation is based on a variational technique that can accommodate continuous wave or pulsed breakdown and can handle nonunifortuities in both gas properties and electric fields. Breakdown behavior is calculated at the nose tip and at the feed gap. Theory and experiment are shown to agree within the estimated accuracy of the experiment.     

Blind deblurring of spiral CT images

To discriminate fine anatomical features in the inner ear, it has been desirable that spiral computed tomography (CT) may perform beyond their current resolution limits with the aid of digital image processing techniques. In this paper, we develop a blind deblurring approach to enhance image resolution retrospectively without complete knowledge of the underlying point spread function (PSF). An oblique CT image can be approximated as the convolution of an isotropic Gaussian PSF and the actual cross section. Practically, the parameter of the PSF is often unavailable. Hence, estimation of the parameter for the underlying PSF is crucially important for blind image deblurring. Based on the iterative deblurring theory, we formulate an edge-to-noise ratio (ENR) to characterize the image quality change due to deblurring. Our blind deblurring algorithm estimates the parameter of the PSF by maximizing the ENR, and deblurs images. In the phantom studies, the blind deblurring algorithm reduces image blurring by about 24%, according to our blurring residual measure. Also, the blind deblurring algorithm works well in patient studies. After fully automatic blind deblurring, the conspicuity of the submillimeter features of the cochlea is substantially improved.     

A nonlinear spatially variant object-dependent system model forprediction of partial volume effects and scatter in PET

Accurate quantitation of small lesions with positron emission tomography (PET) requires correction for the partial volume effect. Traditional methods that use Gaussian models of the PET system were found to be insufficient. A new approach that models the non-Gaussian object-dependent scatter was developed. The model consists of eight simple functions with a total of 24 parameters. Images of line and disk sources in circular and elliptical cylinders, and an anthropomorphic chest phantom were used to determine the parameter values. Empirical rules to determine these parameter values for various objects based on those for a reference object, a 21.5-cm circular cylinder, were also proposed. For seven spheroids and a 3.4-cm cylinder, pixel values predicted by the model were compared with the measured values. The model-to-measurement-ratio was 1.03±0.07 near the center of the spheroids and 0.99±0.03 near the center of the 3.4-cm cylinder. In comparison, the standard single Gaussian model had corresponding ratios of 1.27±0.09 and 1.24±0.03, respectively, and the corresponding ratios for a double Gaussian model were 1.13±0.09 and 1.05±0.01. Scatter fraction (28.5%) for a line source in the 21.5-cm cylinder was correctly estimated by our model. Because of scatter. The authors found that errors in the measurement of activity in spheroids with diameters from 0.6 to 3.4 cm were more significant than previously appreciated