乳制品生产许可证审查细则

一、发证产品范围及申证单元实施食品生产许可证管理的乳制品包括巴氏杀菌乳、灭菌乳、酸牛乳、乳粉、炼乳、奶油、干酪。乳制品的申证单元为3个:液体乳(包括巴氏杀菌乳、灭菌乳、酸牛乳);乳粉(包括全脂乳粉、脱脂乳粉、全脂加糖乳粉、调味乳粉);其他乳制品(包括炼乳、奶油、硬质干酪)。在生产许可证上应当注明获证产品名称即乳制品及申证单元名称和产品品种。乳制品生产许可证有效期为3年,其产品类别编号为0501。尚未纳入本细则管理的其他乳制品,待条件成熟时,将纳入管理。具体办法另行制订。二、必备的生产资源(一)生产场所乳制品生产企业…     

黑龙江市售乳制品蛋白质质量评价

为评价黑龙江省市售乳制品中蛋白质的质量,采用凯氏定氮法和三氯乙酸沉淀法测定黑龙江市售不同厂家生产的全脂加糖乳粉、纯酸牛乳、配制型乳饮料和灭菌纯牛乳中的蛋白质和非蛋白氮含量,计算各乳制品的蛋白氮指数和非蛋白氮指数。结果表明, 利用蛋白氮指数和非蛋白氮指数评价乳制品中蛋白质质量是可行的,并建立了4种乳制品的蛋白氮指数和非蛋白氮指数模型。黑龙江市售合格的全脂加糖乳粉、纯酸牛乳、配制型乳饮料和灭菌纯牛乳的蛋白氮指数范围分别为0.990～0.995、0.870～0.956、0.402～0.633和0.929～0.943,其非蛋白氮指数范围分别为0.005～0.010、0.084～0.130、0.367～0.598和0.069～0.071。总体来说,黑龙江市售乳制品蛋白质含量大多数符合国家标准规定,但部分乳制品的蛋白质质量有待提高。     

酪蛋白胶束结构和理化性质的研究进展

酪蛋白是乳中一大类蛋白质的总称,约占乳蛋白质量分数的80%。牛乳中的酪蛋白不是单独存在的,而是和矿质元素相互缠绕在一起而形成的复合物。牛乳的酸凝、酶凝以及液态乳稳定性的变化,从本质上来说都是酪蛋白胶束发生的一系列变化所导致的。本文概述了组成酪蛋白胶束中四种酪蛋白单体各自的结构和理化特征。综述了胶束的组成、胶束的流体力学直径、容积度、密度、水合性、分子间距等几个重要的特征参数。最后总结了核壳模型、双结合模型、亚单元模型和Holt模型等酪蛋白胶束的理论结构模型的特征及各种的缺陷,以期对乳制品的生产和加工提供一些思路。     

乳制产品结构调整趋势

上海牛奶（集团）公司高级工程师王鸿章：从现有的一些数据表明,制约和影响乳制品消费的因素有人均收入水平、饮食结构和消费习惯、产品质量等,经过周密的调研得出乳制品进行结构调整的趋势为： １、城市以消毒牛乳为主导产品。这类产品耗能低,生产技术设备不复杂,投资额相对较少,因而其加工成本相对于其它乳制品要低些,有可能以较低的适于消费的价格供应市场。 ２、酸牛乳。酸牛乳与人类健康的关系被越来越多的人们所认识,且适宜于“乳糖不耐症”人群食用,而不易产生过敏症状。 ３、特种消毒牛乳。如将乳中乳糖以酶法分解后的产品…     

HACCP体系在乳制品生产中的建立与实施

本文以搅拌型果料酸牛乳为例,详细地介绍了HACCP体系在乳制品行业的建立与实施,旨在促进HACCP体系在乳业中的进一步推广,从而提高乳制品的规范化、标准化生产经营水平.     

乳制品中马尿酸的检测及其在发酵过程中动态变化研究

本文建立用高效液相色谱法(HPLC)测定乳制品中马尿酸的方法,并对纯酸牛乳中马尿酸、动态变化进行了研究。结果表明,以ODS为固定相,甲醇—水—醋酸体系为流动相,马尿酸平均回收率范围为96.2%～104.4%,变异系数(CV)为1.60%,最低检出量为1.8ng,最低检出浓度为0.09mg/kg。研究表明,纯酸牛乳生产用原料乳中马尿酸,在接种乳酸菌后3h基本转化为苯甲酸;建立了纯酸牛乳生产中天然苯甲酸生成量的预测方法,对控制纯酸牛乳中苯甲酸含量具有推广应用价值。     

鲜牛乳中体细胞数检测方法探讨

体细胞数是衡量鲜牛乳卫生状况的重要指标之一，体细胞数的提高会使牛乳中蛋白酶和解脂酶升高，使乳清蛋白含量升高，酪蛋白含量降低，从而使乳制品的货架期缩短，乳制品的风味发生改变。本文通过显微镜检测法、4％NaOH凝乳试验法两种方法的比较试验，探讨在实际生产中鲜牛乳体细胞敖的最佳检测方法及检测时限，以帮助乳制品生产企业加强对牧场的监管和在收购鲜牛乳的过程中快速、准确评判鲜牛乳的品质，确保生产出优质的乳制品供应市场。     

热处理影响牛乳蛋白凝胶特性的研究进展

热处理是各种乳制品生产过程中不可或缺的工艺手段,热处理过程中乳体系的蛋白质会发生变化,影响制品的凝胶特性.介绍了牛乳酸凝胶的模型和酶凝胶的形成阶段,分析了加热过程中蛋白质可能发生的变化,简要阐述了热处理对凝乳效果的影响,指出热诱乳蛋白聚合物与凝乳的机制密切相关,旨在为乳制品加工中热处理的潜在影响提供理论参考.     

发酵乳制品中苯甲酸含量检测及来源分析

对发酵乳制品酸牛乳、干酪中苯甲酸水平进行检测，分析了发酵乳制品中苯甲酸自然形成来源，为预测发酵乳制品中苯甲酸自然形成量，有效控制产品的安全质量提供参考。     

酶法降低牛乳蛋白致敏性的研究进展

酶解牛乳是牛乳加工中的常用技术之一,并且作为低致敏牛乳制备的关键技术已成功应用于实际中。本文综述牛乳中主要过敏原及酶解机制,并详细介绍不同种类的单一酶解和复合酶解用于降低牛乳蛋白致敏性的研究,以期为制备和生产低致敏性乳制品提供一定依据和理论基础。     

Effect of composition on coagulation,curd firming,and syneresis of goat milk

The present study investigated the effect of different levels of fat, protein, and casein on (1) traditional milk coagulation properties, and (2) curd firming over time parameters of 1,272 goat milk samples. Relationships between fat, protein, and casein and some indicators of udder health status (lactose, pH, somatic cells, bacterial count, and NaCl) were also investigated. Traditional milk coagulation properties and modeled curd-firming parameters were analyzed using a mixed model that considered the effect of days in milk, parity, farm, breed, the pendulum of the instrument, and different levels of fat, protein, and casein. Fat, protein, and casein were also tested with the same model but one at a time. Information provided by this model demonstrated the effect of one component alone, without contemporarily considering that of the others. The results allowed us to clarify the effect of the major milk nutrients on coagulation, curd firming, and syneresis ability of goat milk. In particular, milk rich in fat was associated with better coagulation properties, whereas milk rich in protein was associated with delayed coagulation. The high correlation of fat with protein and casein contents suggests that the effect of fat on the cheese-making process is also attributable to the effects of protein and casein. When only protein or only casein was included in the statistical model, the pattern of coagulation, curd firming, and syneresis was almost indistinguishable. The contemporary inclusion of protein and casein in the statistical model did not generate computing problems and allowed us to better characterize the role of protein and casein. Consequently, given their strong association, we also tested the effect of casein-to-protein ratio (i.e., casein number). Higher values of casein number led to a general improvement in the coagulation ability of milk, suggesting that casein-to-protein ratio, not just protein or casein, should be considered when milk is destined for cheese making. These results are especially useful for dairy farmers who want to increase their profits by improving the technological quality of the milk produced.     

The mineral profile affects the coagulation pattern and cheese-making efficiency of bovine milk

Natural variations in milk minerals, their relationships, and their associations with the coagulation process and cheese-making traits present an opportunity for the differentiation of milk destined for high-quality natural products, such as traditional specialties or Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) cheeses. The aim of this study was to quantify the effects of the native contents of Ca, P, Na, K, and Mg on 18 traits describing traditional milk coagulation properties (MCP), curd firming over time (CF_t) equation parameters, cheese yield (CY) measures, and nutrient recoveries in the curd (REC) using models that either included or omitted the simultaneous effects of milk fat and casein contents. The results showed that, by including milk fat and casein and the minerals in the statistical model, we were able to determine the specific effects of each mineral on coagulation and cheese-making efficiency. In general, about two-thirds of the apparent effects of the minerals on MCP and the CF_t equation parameters are actually mediated by their association with milk composition, especially casein content, whereas only one-third of the effects are direct and independent of milk composition. In the case of cheese-making traits, the effects of the minerals were mediated only negligibly by their association with milk composition. High Ca content had a positive effect on the coagulation pattern and cheese-making traits, favoring water retention in the curd in particular. Phosphorus positively affected the cheese-making traits in that it was associated with an increase in CY in terms of curd solids, and in all the nutrient recovery traits. However, a very high P content in milk was associated with lower fat recovery in the curd. The variation in the Na content in milk only mildly affected coagulation, whereas with regard to cheese-making, protein recovery was negatively associated with high concentrations of this mineral. Potassium seemed not to be actively involved in coagulation and the cheese-making process. Magnesium content tended to slow coagulation and reduce CY measures. Further studies on the relationships of minerals with casein and protein fractions could deepen our knowledge of the role of all minerals in coagulation and the cheese-making process.     

Influence of ethanol on the rennet-induced coagulation of milk

The influence of ethanol on the rennet-induced coagulation of milk was studied to investigate potential synergistic effects of these two mechanisms of destabilisation on the casein micelles. Addition of 5% (v/v) ethanol reduced the rennet coagulation time (RCT) of milk, whereas higher levels of ethanol (10-20%, v/v) progressively increased RCT. The temperature at which milk was coagulable by rennet decreased with increasing ethanol content of the milk. The primary stage of rennet coagulation, i.e., the enzymatic hydrolysis of kappa-casein, was progressively slowed with increasing ethanol content (5-20%, v/v), possibly due to ethanol-induced conformational changes in the enzyme molecule. The secondary stage of rennet coagulation, i.e., the aggregation of kappa-casein-depleted micelles, was enhanced in the presence of 5-15% ethanol, the effect being largest at 5% ethanol. Enhanced aggregation of micelles is probably due to an ethanol-induced decrease in inter-micellar steric repulsion. These results indicate an interrelationship between the effects of ethanol and chymosin on the casein micelles in milk, which may have interesting implications for properties of dairy products.     

Interactive effects of casein micelle size and calcium and citrate content on rennet‐induced coagulation in bovine milk

Interactive effects of casein micelle size and milk calcium and citrate content on rennet‐induced coagulation were investigated. Milk samples containing small (SM) and large (LM) micelles, obtained from individual Holstein cows, were modified by addition of calcium and/or citrate and milk coagulation properties were evaluated in a full factorial design. The results showed that LM milk had a higher relative proportion of casein, coagulated faster, and resulted in a stronger gel than SM milk. Addition of calcium slightly decreased casein micelle size, while addition of citrate slightly increased micelle size. Calcium addition resulted in a shorter coagulation time and the strongest gels, while citrate addition increased the coagulation time and resulted in the weakest gels. Addition of calcium and citrate in combination resulted in intermediate coagulation properties. The interactive effect of micelle size and citrate was significant for gel strength. Microstructural differences between the milk gels were consistent with the rheological properties, for example, the micrographs revealed that a more homogeneous network was formed when calcium was added, resulting in a stronger gel. A more inhomogeneous network structure was formed when citrate was added, resulting in a weaker gel. Thus, variations in casein micelle size and in calcium and citrate content influence rennet‐induced coagulation in bovine milk. The calcium and citrate contents in Swedish milk have changed over time, whereby calcium content has increased and citrate content has decreased. In practical cheese making, calcium is added to cheese milk, most likely altering the role of inherent citrate and possibly influencing casein micelle size. The observed interaction effect between casein micelle size and citrate in this study, suggests that larger micelles with moderate citrate level will result in firmer gels, whereas a higher citrate content reduced gel strength more in case of large than SM. Since firmer gels are likely to retain more protein and fat than less firmer gels, this interaction effect could have implications in practical cheese production.     

Dynamic in vitro gastric digestion of infant formulae made with goat milk and cow milk: Influence of protein composition

The gastric digestion behaviours of infant formulae made with goat milk and cow milk, with different ratios of casein to whey protein, were investigated using an in vitro dynamic infant human gastric simulator. The goat milk infant formulae formed smaller flocs of aggregated protein and oil droplets under gastric conditions, leading to faster protein digestion in goat milk infant formulae than in cow milk infant formulae. The extent of coagulation of protein and the size of flocculated oil droplets were dependent on the protein composition of the formulae. The casein-dominated cow milk infant formula had greater aggregation initially during gastric digestion, but a lower rate of casein digestion. The results suggest that the different composition of the casein micelles in goat milk may play an important role in the lower extent of coagulation and the faster protein gastric digestion in goat milk compared with cow milk.     

乳蛋白多态性和盐分布对牛乳凝乳性能的影响

研究不同基因型乳蛋白对牛乳凝乳特性的影响规律。采集1 071 头荷斯坦奶牛血样,分析κ-酪蛋白（κ-casein,κ-CN）和β-乳球蛋白（β-lactoglobulin,β-LG）的基因型,在明确基因型的基础上,采集样品开展牛乳凝乳能力评价。在初步筛选的基础上,选择凝乳性能好、凝乳性能差和不凝乳样品各至少30 份,重复3 次,开展凝乳流变学特性、蛋白多态性及矿物离子分布分析。通过动态流变仪、电感应耦合等离子体质谱仪、毛细管电泳、高效液相色谱技术分析不同凝乳等级牛乳的凝乳时间,胶体钙、镁、磷含量差异,不同基因型导致蛋白多态性及含量对牛乳凝乳能力的影响。结果显示,在所有奶牛组中,β-LG的AB基因型（占比48.48%）最常见,但AA型基因（30.97%）的原料乳凝乳效果较好;κ-CN的BB基因型（12.00%）凝乳效果较好,较AA、AB等其凝乳时间更短和凝胶强度更强。凝乳性能好的样品中CN含量及胶体钙含量较高,pH值较凝乳性能差和不凝乳样品低,凝乳时间与κ-CN含量呈反比,酪蛋白和乳清蛋白组成和基因频率的变化会影响牛乳凝乳性能的变化。     

Heat stability of transglutaminase-treated milk

Heat-induced coagulation of unconcentrated (9%, w/w) and concentrated (18%, w/w) reconstituted skim milk was determined after incubation with transglutaminase (TGase). Cross-linking ∼20% of κ-casein strongly increased the heat stability of unconcentrated milk at pH >6.9, presumably by preventing heat-induced dissociation of κ-casein, whereas increased heat stability of unconcentrated milk at pH 6.6–6.8 was only observed when >80% of casein was cross-linked. Treatment with TGase reduced heat stability of unconcentrated milk at pH <6.6, presumably due to the increased susceptibility of partially cross-linked casein micelles to coagulation arising from heat-induced acidification. A low degree of cross-linking increased the heat stability of concentrated milk at pH >6.8, but more extensive cross-linking progressively reduced heat stability. The degree of cross-linking studied did not increase the heat-stability of concentrated milk at its natural pH. The outcomes of this study substantiate the crucial roles of heat-induced acidification and casein dissociation in heat stability of milk.     

羊奶酪蛋白热稳定性的研究

以莎能和关中羊奶为原料,通过从羊奶中提取酪蛋白,分别在不同的pH、温度以及添加不同浓度的Ca^2＋、柠檬酸钠、三聚磷酸钠、干酪素的条件下测定酪蛋白的热凝固时间（HCT）,研究其对羊奶酪蛋白热稳定性的影响。结果表明,pH在6．8时酪蛋白的热稳定性最好,高温会降低酪蛋白的热稳定性,钙离子可以降低羊奶酪蛋白的热稳定性,适量的柠檬酸钠或三聚磷酸钠可以有效提高羊奶酪蛋白的热稳定性,干酪素对酪蛋白稳定性影响不明显。     

Effect of storage at 4 degrees C on the physicochemical and renneting properties of milk: a comparison of caprine, ovine and bovine milks

The effects of cold storage at 4 degrees C for 12, 24 and 48 h on the physicochemical characteristics and renneting properties of ewes', goats' and cows' milks were compared. The most important changes were observed in cows' milk. Soluble calcium concentrations were not affected in ewes' milk but were increased by 10% in cows' milk and 7% in goats' milk. More casein was dissociated on cooling cows' (+300%) than goats' (+100%) milk, and there was no change in soluble casein in ewes' milk. The coagulation characteristics of cows' milk were more impaired by cold storage than goats' or ewes' milks. Coagulation times increased by approximately 30% and whey draining capacity decreased by 40% after cows' milk was cooled, but there were no changes with ewes' milk and only a slight decrease in coagulation time with goats' milk. We propose an interpretation of these results based on the physicochemical properties of each type of milk.     

Reformation of casein particles from alkaline-disrupted casein micelles

In this study, the properties of casein particles reformed from alkaline disrupted casein micelles were studied. For this purpose, micelles were disrupted completely by increasing milk pH to 10.0, and subsequently reformed by decreasing milk pH to 6.6. Reformed casein particles were smaller than native micelles and had a slightly lower zeta-potential. Levels of ionic and serum calcium, as well as rennet coagulation time did not differ between milk containing native micelles or reformed casein particles. Ethanol stability and heat stability, >pH 7.0, were lower for reformed casein particles than native micelles. Differences in heat stability, ethanol stability and zeta-potential can be explained in terms of the influence of increased concentrations of sodium and chloride ions in milk containing reformed casein particles. Hence, these results indicate that, if performed in a controlled manner, casein particles with properties closely similar to those of native micelles can be reformed from alkaline disrupted casein micelles.