Interactions Among Elaborative Interrogation, Knowledge, and Interest in the Process of Constructing Knowledge From Text.

The authors examined the impact of elaborative interrogation on knowledge construction during expository text reading, specifically, the interactions among elaborative interrogation, knowledge, and interest. Three measures of learning were taken: recall, inference, and coherence. Elaborative interrogation affected all aspects of learning measured, with a significant interaction between elaborative interrogation and interest with regard to inference. The experimental effect on the measure of inference was larger for the students who had less interest than for the students who had more interest. There was also an interaction effect between knowledge and elaborative interrogation for coherence. The experimental effect on coherence was higher for students who had less knowledge than students who had more knowledge. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Elaborative interrogation facilitates adult learning of factual paragraphs.

The authors evaluated the potency of elaborative interrogation for promoting acquisition of facts in paragraphs (PARs). University students studied 6-sentence factual PARs about 5 universities (1 fact per sentence). In general, elaborative interrogration facilitated learning better than did self-reference (Experiment 1 only) and reading-control conditions; performance in the elaborative-interrogation conditions equaled performances in the imagery conditions. The elaborative interrogation over control advantage was obtained for both intentional and incidental learning (Experiment 2) and both when subjects processed sentences individually and when they generated answers for each new sentence in a PAR by considering information presented earlier in the PAR (Experiment 2). Even when elaborative-interrogration subjects could not recall facts in their entirety, they were more likely than control subjects to have learned the associations between the university and the factual attribute. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of elaborative interrogation with prose passages.

Two hypotheses about the effectiveness of elaborative interrogation were investigated. First, students who engaged in elaborative interrogation while reading would remember more than those who underlined. Second, the characteristics of the students' elaborations would influence learning. 114 students in the 6th and 7th grades were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 conditions: underline-only, underline with elaboration, generate elaboration, and elaboration with study sheet. Generating an elaboration led to better memory for main ideas in comparison with the underline-only group, whereas the underline with elaboration group did better on an inference problem. Characteristics of elaborations did not influence the probability of learning the target fact. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Isolating variables that impact on or detract from the effectiveness of elaboration strategies.

The role of prior knowledge in elaboration strategies was examined in 3 experiments. University students were presented with material that accessed either a highly developed or a less developed knowledge base and instructed to answer "why" questions (elaborative interrogation), create interactive images (imagery), create interactive images using keywords (keyword), or read the information aloud (repetition). Across all 3 experiments, elaborative interrogation was most effective when learners were able to draw on a rich knowledge base. However, when the knowledge base was low, imagery-based strategies were more potent than elaborative interrogation. These results suggest that creating mental images encourages the processing of both relations and distinctions to a greater extent than elaborative interrogation when the learners' background knowledge is limited. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of elaborative interrogation to help students acquire information consistent with prior knowledge and information inconsistent with prior knowledge.

32 factual statements were processed by 140 6th and 7th graders. Half of the statements were consistent with the Ss' prior knowledge, whereas the remaining facts were inconsistent with the Ss' prior knowledge. Half of the Ss were instructed to read the sentences for understanding (reading controls). The remaining Ss were instructed to use their prior knowledge to answer why each fact was true (elaborative interrogation). Two tests of recall (free and cued) and 2 tests of recognition (immediate and 14-day) followed. In Exp 2, Ss also completed 75-day and 180-day recognition tasks. Across all memory measures, elaborative-interrogation Ss performed significantly better than did reading controls. In general, the quality of the elaborative-interrogation study responses did not affect learning. All Ss recognized more prior-knowledge-consistent facts than prior-knowledge-inconsistent facts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Elaborative interrogation facilitates acquisition of confusing facts.

Evaluated the potency of an elaborative procedure (elaborative interrogation) for fact learning. In particular, we compared it to another elaborative method (constructing imaginal representations) that is usually effective in mediating associative learning. Thus in 4 experiments, adults were presented sets of facts. The 1st 2 experiments involved sentences containing arbitrary information, essentially random pairings of subjects and predicates; the latter 2 experiments involved materials representing real-world associations, ones not known by Ss before the study, but ones that Ss might be able to rationalize on the basis of prior knowledge. In each of the experiments, Ss in the elaborative-interrogation condition constructed a reason why each fact made sense; Ss in the imagery condition constructed an internal imaginal representation of each facts; and reading-control Ss read the facts under an instruction to make certain that they understood each fact. Memory of the facts was consistently much better in the elaborative-interrogation and imagery conditions than in the reading-control condition; there were no reliable performance differences between the elaborative-interrogation and imagery conditions. Elaborative interrogation seems to be a powerful learning procedure that is generally useful during fact learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental differences in study behavior.

This study is a developmental examination of strategy instruction and the context that promotes when and how strategy instruction is maximized. The 4 experimental manipulations included comparisons between 2 strategy conditions, familiar and unfamiliar text, dyad versus individual study, and 4 age groups (M?=?10.5, 14.7, 19.9, and 21.9 yrs). The 486 students from Grades 5–6, and 9–10 and 1st- and 4th-yr university were assigned randomly to 1 strategy condition (self-study or elaborative interrogation) and 1 study context (dyad or individual). Participants studied and recalled 60 facts about familiar and unfamiliar animals. Explicit instruction in elaborative interrogation promoted memory performance, especially in the younger population. Studying in dyads enhanced memory and quality of study across age. To enhance text learning performance, students should be given explicit strategy instruction and should study interactively with their peers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Elaborative-interrogation and prior-knowledge effects on learning of facts.

Canadian and West German adults were presented facts about Canadian provinces and West German states (at the time of the study, West Germany was a separate nation of what is now the Federal Republic of Germany). Participants in the elaborative-interrogation condition rationalized why each fact was sensible. Reading-to-understand participants read the facts with the goal of comprehending each one. After presentation of all facts, Ss were asked to match provinces and states to acts associated with them. These performances were compared with matching in a no-exposure-control condition. Prior knowledge had a striking effect on learning in both the elaborative-interrogation and reading-to-understand conditions. Elaborative interrogation also promoted learning of all facts for all participants, although when learners lacked prior knowledge, elaborative interrogation did not produce the high levels of performance that were obtained when Ss possessing high prior knowledge simply read the facts. Both strategies and prior knowledge are critical to efficient learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The benefits of embedded question adjuncts for low and high structure builders.

The effectiveness of two types of adjunct questions, standard embedded questions and "why" questions (elaborative interrogation), was investigated for readers differing in structure-building ability (Gernsbacher, 1990). Participants read a textbook chapter either with or without the adjunct questions. Learning was assessed with typical classroom testing methods (multiple choice, short answer). Also, relatedness ratings were used to assess the coherence of learners' representations. High structure builders generally outperformed low structure builders. However, embedded questions but not elaborative interrogation improved the low structure builders' test performances on information targeted by and related to the adjunct questions. Neither study method improved test performance for the high comprehenders. Embedded questions also stimulated more coherent representations. Results indicate that embedded questions are an effective study method for low comprehenders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Elaborative inferences during reading: Do they occur on-line?

Four experiments were conducted to examine the extent to which readers construct elaborative inferences on-line during reading. In Experiment 1, gaze durations were measured while subjects read anaphors to target antecedents that referenced a particular category member either explicitly or implicitly. When the context strongly suggested a particular category member, gaze durations on an anaphor were the same following either an implicit or an explicit antecedent. When the context did not suggest any particular category member, gaze durations were significantly longer following an implicit antecedent. The results confirmed that, with sufficient context, readers will generate a simple elaborative inference on-line. These results were replicated in Experiment 2 in which the materials did not strongly signal the inference but a sentence designed to encourage subjects to infer was included. In Experiment 3, this "demand sentence" was not included, and readers did not appear to construct the targeted inference. The results of Experiment 4 confirmed that once generated, elaborative inferences are stored as part of the long-term-memory representation of a passage. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Elaborative inferencing as an active or passive process.

E. J. O'Brien et al (see record 1988-31689-001) reported that readers generated elaborative inferences only when a text contained characteristics that virtually eliminated the possibility of an inference being disconfirmed. We reanalyzed O'Brien's data and also conducted an experiment in which we varied (a) whether or not there was an anaphoric relation between a target word and its prior mention in the text and (b) the explicitness of the prior mention. Two refinements to O'Brien et al's conclusions are offered. First, the two text characteristics they manipulated (a strong biasing context or a demand sentence) may have produced different types of elaborative inferencing. We argue that a biasing context results in a passive form of elaborative inferencing, involving setting up a context of interpretation, whereas the presence of a demand sentence invites the reader to actively predict a subsequent expression. Second, clear evidence for either type of inference will be apparent only with truly anaphoric materials. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning from text with diagrams: Promoting mental model development and inference generation.

Two experiments investigated learning outcomes and comprehension processes when students learned about the heart and circulatory system using (a) text only, (b) text with simplified diagrams designed to highlight important structural relations, or (c) text with more detailed diagrams reflecting a more accurate representation. Experiment 1 found that both types of diagrams supported mental model development, but simplified diagrams best supported factual learning. Experiment 2 replicated learning effects from Experiment 1 and tested the influence of diagrams on novices' comprehension processes. Protocol analyses indicated that both types of diagrams supported inference generation and reduced comprehension errors, but simplified diagrams most strongly supported information integration during learning. Visual representations appear to be most effective when they are designed to support the cognitive processes necessary for deep comprehension. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the relationship between recognition speed and accuracy for words rehearsed via rote versus elaborative rehearsal.

Tacit within both lay and cognitive conceptualizations of learning is the notion that those conditions of learning that foster "good" retention do so by increasing both the probability and the speed of access to the relevant information. In 3 experiments, time pressure during recognition is shown to decrease accessibility more for words learned via elaborative rehearsal than for words learned via rote rehearsal, despite the fact that elaborative rehearsal is a more efficacious learning strategy as measured by the probability of access. In Experiment 1, participants learned each word using both types of rehearsal, and the results show that access to the products of elaborative rehearsal is more compromised by time pressure than is access to the products of rote rehearsal. The results of Experiment 2, in which each word was learned via either pure rote or pure elaborative rehearsal, exhibit the same pattern. Experiment 3, in which the authors used the response-signal procedure, provides evidence that this difference in accessibility owes not to differences in the rate of access to the 2 types of traces, but rather to the higher asymptotic level of stored information for words learned via elaborative rehearsal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Elaborative interrogation effects on children's learning of factual content.

In 2 experiments children in Grades 4–8 learned facts under different instructional conditions. Control Ss were given base sentences containing facts and were permitted to study them as they wished. In some conditions fact sentences were accompanied by elaborations (e.g., an explanation of why a stated animal lived in a stated locale). Ss in the elaborative interrogation conditions attempted to construct their own reasons for why the facts held true. Ss in the imagery conditions constructed internal imaginal representations for each fact (e.g., an image of a stated animal living in the stated locale). Elaborative interrogation was the only condition that significantly facilitated acquisition of facts in both experiments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The molecular biology of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

Two experiments were performed to evaluate the effects of three different elaborative activities on concept learning. Experiment 1 consisted of 60 undergraduates, while Experiment 2 consisted of 54 undergraduates. In both experiments, subjects studied a passage which asked them to create personal examples of the target concepts, contrast the target concepts, or expand on the effects of the target concepts. Subjects took a criterion test which consisted of recall of concept definitions and teaching examples, classification of novel examples, and problem solving scenarios. In both experiments, the condition which asked subjects to contrast the target concepts produced significantly better performance than the other two conditions. Possible explanations focus on: (1) the degree to which the different elaborative activities influence the richness and/or distinctiveness of the encoded information, and (2) the relation among the focus of the elaborative activity, the experimental text, and the measured criterion outcomes.     

Systematic analysis of variables that contribute to the formation of analogical misconceptions.

In 2 experiments, middle school students processed an analogy and responded to factual and inferential target-domain questions. In Exp 1, responses were analyzed to determine the effects of 1 instructional variable (context specificity) and 3 learner variables (age, verbal aptitude, gender) on the mapping of extraneous base features. Fewer inappropriate inferences were generated by students who had high verbal aptitude scores, were female, and processed the analogy with a specific context. Verbal aptitude interacted with both context specificity and age to influence target inferences. In Exp 2, the number of incorrect inferences decreased when students either induced an appropriate schema or processed the analogy containing information that conflicted with preexisting gender roles. Results of both experiments support a variable model of analogical misconception formation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Category Representation for Classification and Feature Inference.

This research's purpose was to contrast the representations resulting from learning of the same categories by either classifying instances or inferring instance features. Prior inference learning research, particularly T. Yamauchi and A. B. Markman (1998), has suggested that feature inference learning fosters prototype representation, whereas classification learning encourages exemplar representation. Experiment 1 supported this hypothesis. Averaged and individual participant data from transfer after inference training were better fit by a prototype than by an exemplar model. However, Experiment 2, with contrasting inference learning conditions, indicated that the prototype model was mimicking a set of label-based bidirectional rules, as determined by the inference learning task demands in Experiment 1. Only the set of rules model accounted for all the inference learning conditions in these experiments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Task-dependent effects of organization and context upon comprehension of prose.

The effect of variations in the organization of information and contextual features upon comprehension of prose was tested in multiple tasks. The 4 tasks were (a) immediate free recall and recognition of (b) a factual detail, (c) the main idea, and (d) an inference. A fractional design for 32 high school students was used to accommodate many aspects of organization and context, heretofore dispersed, in one experiment. Results suggest that performance on these 4 tasks varied as a function of different dimensions of organization (structure and linkages) and context (S variables—reading achievement and sex; learning conditions—amount of time for reading; and characteristics of the materials—length, contents, prior knowledge). (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of causal models in analogical inference.

Computational models of analogy have assumed that the strength of an inductive inference about the target is based directly on similarity of the analogs and in particular on shared higher order relations. In contrast, work in philosophy of science suggests that analogical inference is also guided by causal models of the source and target. In 3 experiments, the authors explored the possibility that people may use causal models to assess the strength of analogical inferences. Experiments 1-2 showed that reducing analogical overlap by eliminating a shared causal relation (a preventive cause present in the source) from the target increased inductive strength even though it decreased similarity of the analogs. These findings were extended in Experiment 3 to cross-domain analogical inferences based on correspondences between higher order causal relations. Analogical inference appears to be mediated by building and then running a causal model. The implications of the present findings for theories of both analogy and causal inference are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

中国沉积锰矿的成矿规律

系统介绍了中国沉积锰矿的基本地质特征,并结合大量的实际地质资料,对矿床的控矿地质因素进行了探讨,认为中国沉积锰矿具有盆、相、位的成矿规律。