Effect of welding heat input on fatigue life of quenched boron steel and FB steel lap joint

The effect of welding heat input on the fatigue life of a quenched boron steel and ferrite-bainite (FB) steel lap joint was investigated. Boron steel was quenched and welded with FB steel in heat input ranging from 0.29 to 0.67 kJ/mm. Boron, which can increase hardenability, affected the microstructure and hardness of the weld metal and heat affected zone (HAZ). The hardness of the weld metal and HAZ increased with decreasing welding heat input, and the high hardness of the weld metal and boron steel HAZ prevented the initiation of cracks in the stress concentration area around the bead. The bead width increased with increasing heat input, and the results of finite element method (FEM) showed that the maximum stress in the notch of the weld joint decreased when the bead width was increased. That is to say, the fatigue life increased when the weld joint had wider bead width. Finally, while the fatigue life was affected by the residual stress, the variation of the welding heat input used in this study had hardly any affect on the residual stress distribution.     

Use of a multivariate optimization algorithm to develop a self-consistent numerical heat transfer model for laser spot welding

Laser spot welding as a joining method offers many outstanding advantages, such as localized heating and melting, high weld-strength-to-weld-size ratio, and minimal heat affected zone. These provide the benefits of low heat distortion, repeatability, ability to automate and high throughout that are always in demand in industry. An accurate knowledge of the temperature-time history of the weld pool is a prerequisite for reliable prediction of the weld dimensions, final microstructure and mechanical properties of the weld joint. Measurement of the weld thermal cycle in the laser weld pool is nearly impossible due to high peak temperature, rapid melting and solidification, and the complex flow of liquid metal within a small weld pool. Mathematical modeling of the laser spot welding process has emerged as a useful tool for the prediction of the temperature-time history and weld pool dimensions. However, the reliability of the predicted values of temperature history and weld dimensions significantly depends on the accuracy of the input parameters provided in such models. For example, the value of the absorption coefficient is a significant input parameter for modeling the laser spot welding process. However, the same is rarely available with adequate reliability and is also difficult to assign from scientific principles alone. This work presents a novel mathematical framework where the values of a set of uncertain input parameters for mathematical modeling are identified inherently by integrating a finite element based heat transfer simulation using adaptive volumetric heat source and a multivariate optimization algorithm.     

Mathematical models for control of weld bead penetration in the GMAW process

This paper presents the effects of welding process parameters on weld bead penetration for the gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process. Welding process parameters included wire diameter, gas flow rate, welding speed, arc current and welding voltage. The experimental results have shown that weld bead penetration increased as wire diameter, arc current and welding voltage increased, whereas an increase in welding speed was found to decrease the weld bead penetration. However, the weld bead penetration is not affected significantly by gas flow rate changes. Mathematical equations for study of the relationship between welding process parameters and weld bead penetration have also been computed by employing a standard statistical package program, SAS.     

用Nd:YAG激光焊接殷钢薄板材料

用Nd:YAG脉冲激光作为焊接热源,对殷钢材料Invar36分别进行了平板单道焊接试验和对焊试验,分析了工艺参数(激光功率、焊接速度、脉冲宽度和离焦量)变化对焊缝的表面形貌、熔宽以及熔透性的影响.检测了0.85 mm厚的殷钢薄板对焊接头的硬度、成分以及拉伸强度.结果表明:激光功率和脉宽是影响焊缝熔深、熔宽和热影响区面积的主要因素;扫描速度对焊缝表面的鱼鳞状条纹间距影响尤为明显;离焦量主要影响焊缝的宽度和熔透性;合理匹配工艺参数能够实现0.85 mm厚度薄板的对焊,并且获得形貌良好的焊缝.焊缝的组织成分没有发生明显变化,拉伸强度和基体强度相当,显微硬度略低于基体硬度.     

外加磁场对高速GMAW电弧和熔池行为的主动调控效应

在熔化极气体保护焊(Gas metal arc welding,GMAW)过程中,当焊接速度超过临界值后,焊缝成形变差,出现咬边和驼峰焊道,无法满足生产要求。研究证明,熔池中动量很大的后向液体流是产生驼峰焊道的主要原因。自主研发外加磁场发生装置,向熔池施加横向电磁力,对后向液体流进行主动干预,并调控熔池流态,从而抑制驼峰焊道的形成。在Q235低碳钢板上开展焊接工艺试验,获得了不同磁感应强度下的焊缝表面成形;采用高速摄像技术,拍摄焊接过程中的电弧和熔池图像,分析外加磁场对电弧形态、熔池流场和焊缝成形的影响规律,初步揭示外加磁场抑制驼峰焊道的机理。试验结果表明,外加横向磁场能明显调控熔池流态,减小后向液体流的动量,并能有效抑制驼峰焊道和咬边等缺陷,显著改善焊缝成形,提高临界焊接速度。     

Integrated design and process analysis of a blow molding turbo-charged pipe

These days, the trend in every manufacturing industry including welding is to automate the processes in order to increase productivity. To achieve this objective, it is therefore necessary to make use of models to relate the input parameters with the responses. This paper reports on the applicability of fuzzy logic to predict the weld bead penetration in submerged arc welding process as affected by input welding parameters. Fuzzy logic is a computer technique which allows expressing, evaluating, and simplifying complexities in regard to the relationships in a process by describing the dependencies between output and input parameters in a linguistic form. To develop the fuzzy logic model, the arc voltage, welding current, welding speed, electrode stick-out, and thickness of TiO₂ nanoparticles were taken as the input parameters and the weld bead penetration as the response. In order to generate experimental data, a five-level five-factor rotatable central composite design of experiments was employed. Experiments were performed, and the weld bead penetrations were measured. The predicted results using fuzzy logic were compared with the experimental ones. The correlation coefficient value obtained was 99.99 % between the measured and predicted values of weld bead penetration. The results show that the fuzzy logic is an accurate and reliable technique used in predicting the weld bead penetration due to its low error rate.     

Predictions of the optimized friction stir welding process parameters for joining AA7075-T6 aluminum alloy using preheating system

The scope of this investigation is to evaluate the effect of welding parameters on the mechanical properties and microstructural features of 3-mm-thick AA7075-T6 aluminum alloy subjected to gas heating system as a preheating source during friction stir welding. Toward this end, a gas heating system was designed to heat up the weld seam just ahead of rotating tool to soften the material before being stirred. Three welding parameters, five levels, and a central composite design (CCD) have been used to minimize the number of experimental conditions. The joining parameters such as tool rotational speed, welding speed, and shoulder diameter have a significant influence on determining the mechanical properties of the welded joints. It was found that using preheating system mostly can result in higher total heat input into the weld joint and effectively reduces the formation of defects when unsuitable process parameters were used. Also, an attempt has been made to establish the mathematical model to predict the tensile strength and microhardness of the joints. The optimal welding conditions to maximize the final responses were investigated and reported. The results show that the joint fabricated at a rotational speed of 1,050 rpm, welding speed of 100 mm/min, and shoulder diameter of 14 mm exhibited higher mechanical properties compared to other joints.     

Some investigations on microstructure and mechanical properties of submerged arc welded HSLA steel joints

This paper investigates the influence of the submerged arc welding (SAW) process parameters (welding current and welding speed) on the microstructure, hardness, and toughness of HSLA steel weld joints. Attempts have also been made to analyze the results on the basis of the heat input. The SAW process was used for the welding of 16 mm thick HSLA steel plates. The weld joints were prepared using comparatively high heat input (3.0 to 6.3 KJ/mm) by varying welding current (500–700 A) and welding speed (200–300 mm/min). Results showed that the increase in heat input coarsens the grain structure both in the weld metal and heat affected zone (HAZ). The hardness has been found to vary from the weld centre line to base metal and peak hardness was found in the HAZ. The hardness of the weld metal was largely uniform. The hardness reduced with the increase in welding current and reduction in welding speed (increasing heat input) while the toughness showed mixed trend. The increase in welding current from 500 A to 600 A at a given welding speed (200 mm/min or 300 mm/min) increased toughness and further increase in welding current up to 700 A lowered the toughness. Scanning electron microscopy of the fractured surfaces of impact test specimen was carried out to study the fracture modes. Electron probe micro analysis (EPMA) was carried out to investigate the variation in wt.% of different elements in the weld metal and HAZ.     

Prevention of humping bead associated with high welding speed by double-electrode gas metal arc welding

Manufacturing productivity can be improved by increasing the welding speed. However, humping bead will occur when welding speed is beyond a certain value. An experimental system of double-electrode gas metal arc welding (DE-GMAW) was developed to implement high speed welding and prevent from humping bead formation. The DE-GMAW appropriately partition the heat energy between the wire and the base metal so that higher deposition rate of filler wire and suitable shape and size of weld pool are ensured. The arc images captured during DE-GMAW process were used to optimize the geometric parameters between the gas tungsten arc welding and the gas metal arc welding (GMAW) torches. The main arc and bypass arc integrated well and satisfactory weld bead formation was obtained. Through observing the weld pool behaviors from side view during DE-GMAW process, it was found that the height of both solidified and molten region at the pool tail is almost flat so that no humping bead was formed during DE-GMAW with the welding speed up to 1.7?m/min. The side view images of weld pool in DE-GMAW were compared with those in conventional GMAW, and the reason why DE-GMAW can suppress humping bead is shortly discussed.     

Optimization of pulsed GTA welding process parameters for the welding of AISI 304L stainless steel sheets

Optimization of pulsed gas tungsten arc welding (pulsed GTAW) process parameters was carried out to obtain optimum weld bead geometry with full penetration in welding of stainless steel (304L) sheets of 3 mm thickness. Autogenuous welding with square butt joint was employed. Design of experiments based on central composite rotatable design was employed for the development of a mathematical model correlating the important controllable pulsed GTAW process parameters like pulse current (I _p), pulse current duration (T _p), and welding speed (S) with weld bead parameters such as penetration, bead width (W), aspect ratio (AR), and weld bead area of the weld. The developed models were checked for adequacy based on ANOVA analysis and accuracy of prediction by conducting a confirmation test. Weld bead parameters predicted by the models were found to confirm observed values with high accuracy. Using these models, the main and interaction effects of pulsed GTAW process parameters on weld bead parameters were studied and discussed. Optimization of pulsed GTAW process parameters was carried out to obtain optimum bead geometry using the developed models. A quasi-Newton numerical optimization technique was used to solve the optimization problem and the results of the optimization are presented.     

Effect of process parameters and mathematical model for the prediction of bead geometry in pulsed GMA welding

Pulsed gas metal arc welding is one of the most widely used processes in the industry. It offers spray metal transfer at low average currents, high metal deposition rate, versatility, less distortion, and the ability to be used in automated robotic welding systems. The weld bead plays an important role in determining the mechanical properties of the weld. Its geometric parameters, viz., width, reinforcement height, and penetration, are decided according to the welding process parameters, such as wire feed rate, welding speed, pulse current magnitude, frequency (cycle time), etc. Therefore, to produce good weld bead geometry, it is important to set the proper welding process parameters. In the present paper, mathematical models that correlate welding process parameters to weld bead geometry are developed with experimental investigation. Taguchi methods are applied to plan the experiments. Five process parameters, viz., wire feed rate, plate thickness, pulse frequency, pulse current magnitude, and travel speed, are selected to develop the models using multiple regression analysis. The models developed were checked for their adequacy. Results of confirmation experiments show that the models can predict the bead geometry with reasonable accuracy.     

Software development for prediction of the weld bead in CMT and pulsed-MAG processes

Prediction of weld bead shapes prior to welding has been a challenge for researchers in recent years. The assurance of a weld shape with adequate penetration and dilution, good wetting angles and no undercuts leads to less repairing and reworking and thus, lower cost and time consumed. CMT is a variant of MIG/MAG welding process recently introduced in the market. Software control for bead-shape prediction helps the user to get familiar with this modern technology. In the present paper, two approaches were undertaken for software development. These were applied to CMT and pulsed-MAG welding and the results were compared. The graphical interface was built to help the user choose the welding parameters and get the representation of the weld bead profile. The two approaches used to predict the weld bead profiles are neural networks and interpolation method. The data entries for the two different methods are: welding process (CMT and MAG-pulsed), plate thickness, travel speed and wire feed speed. The output data is the complete welding profile defined by X and Y coordinates of the points on the welding profile. The neural networks were trained with different numbers of neurons, multiple layers and different networks, and welding data bases with different structures were used, in order to find the best fitting neural network. The final results for each method were checked against real profiles and it was concluded that the neural network method was more flexible and the accuracy of each methods was nearly the same.     

Multiresponse optimization of laser welding of stainless steels in a constrained fillet joint configuration using RSM

This paper presents experimental design approach to process parameter optimization for CW Nd/YAG laser welding of ferritic/austenitic stainless steels in a constrained fillet configuration. To determine the optimal welding parameters, response surface methodology was used to develop a set of mathematical models relating the welding parameters to each of the weld characteristics. The quality criteria considered to determine the optimal settings were the maximization of weld resistance length and shearing force, and the minimization of weld radial penetration. Laser power, welding speed, and incident angle are the factors that affect the weld bead characteristics significantly. A rapid decrease in weld shape factor and increase in shearing force with the line energy input in the range of 15–17 kJ/m depicts the establishment of a keyhole regime. A focused beam with laser power and welding speed respectively in the range of 860–875 W and 3.4–4.0 m/min and an incident angle of around 12° were identified as the optimal set of laser welding parameters to obtain stronger and better welds.     

Nano-scale multi-layered coatings for improved efficiency of ceramic cutting tools

Electron beam welding, though considered a sophisticated welding process, still requires the operator to first carry out several trial welds to find the right combination of welding parameters based on intuition and experience. This archaic method is often unreliable, leading to unproductive manufacturing lead time, man hours, quality control tests, and material wastage. The current study eliminates this “trial and error” method by providing a reliable model which can predict the right combination of weld parameters to achieve a high-quality weld. Beads on plate welds were carried out on AISI 304 stainless steel plates using a low-kilovolt electron beam welding (EBW) machine. A model that can predict weld bead geometry and provide optimized output for minimum weld area condition without compromising on weld quality was developed. Experimental data were collected as per full factorial design of experiments, and the levels for each input parameter were established through pilot experiments. A multivariate regression analysis has been conducted to establish a relationship between four weld input parameters (three levels each) and four weld bead responses. Response surface methodology (RSM) has been used to study the interrelationship between input parameters and their effect on each response variable. Further, minimization of weld cross-sectional area was done using genetic algorithm for maximum penetration and minimum weld area condition. The optimized mathematical model convincingly establishes that the focusing current is a significant input parameter with very high influence over the weld bead geometry. Extensive material characterization and mechanical tests have been carried out to validate the regressed input-output relationship and the optimized mathematical model.     

铝合金双面双弧同步立焊工艺特征与接头组织性能分析

采用双面双弧同步立焊工艺方法,对8 mm厚5083铝合金进行自熔试验,I形坡口一次熔透,焊缝成形美观。通过调节两侧电弧热量配比研究熔池成形规律,并从焊接接头的微观组织、力学性能分析其连接机理。研究结果表明,随着热输入的增加,双面双弧同步立焊热量加速集聚,熔深以三次幂函数的速度增大。双面双弧同步立焊接头轮廓呈“双曲线形”,而相同热输入下的单面焊接头则呈“倒马鞍形”。总热输入一定的情况下,双面双弧接头正面熔宽随能量配比系数的增大而增大,反面熔宽随能量配比系数的增大而减小,中间熔宽基本不变,熔化面积随能量配比系数的增大先增大后减小;能量配比系数一定时,随着焊速的增大,接头熔宽和熔化面积均减小。母材组织为条带状纤维织构,热影响区发生静态回复与再结晶,变形组织消失,产生新晶粒,焊缝区主要由α-Al固溶体、β相(Al8Mg5)质点和骨骼状的Mg2Si析出相组成。焊缝的抗拉强度随着能量配比系数的增大而减小,拉伸断裂形式为韧性断裂。热影响区出现软化现象,双弧交汇区硬度低于正面焊缝区。     

Optimization of friction stir welding process of AA7075 aluminum alloy to achieve desirable mechanical properties using ANFIS models and simulated annealing algorithm

Current work deals with experimental investigation, modeling, and optimization of friction stir welding process (FSW) to reach desirable mechanical properties of aluminum 7075 plates. Main factors of process were tool pin profile, tool rotary speed, welding speed, and welding axial force. Also, main responses were tensile strength, yield strength, and hardness of welded zone. Four factors and five levels of central composite design have been utilized to minimize the number of experimental observations. Then, adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems (ANFIS) have been used to generate mapping relationship between process factors and main response using experimental observations. Afterward, the developed models were applied as objective function to select optimal parameters, in which the process reaches to its desirable mechanical properties by using the simulated annealing algorithm. Results indicated that the tool with square pin profile, rotary speed of 1,400 RPM, welding speed of 1.75 mm/s, and axial force of 7.5 KN resulted in desirable mechanical properties in both cases of single response and multi-response optimization. Also, these solutions have been verified by confirmation tests and FSW process physical behavior. These verifications indicated that both ANFIS model and simulated annealing algorithm are appropriate tools for modeling and optimization of process.     

A control system for uniform bead in fillet arc welding on tack welds

Positioning a workpiece accurately and preventing weld distortion, tack welding is often adopted before main welding in the construction of welded structures. However, this tack weld deteriorates the final weld bead profile, so that the grinding process is usually performed for a uniform weld bead profile. In this study, a control system for uniform weld bead is proposed for the fillet arc welding on tack welds. The system consists of GMA welding machine, torch manipulator, laser vision sensor for measuring the tack weld size and the database for optimal welding conditions. Experiments have been performed for constructing the database and for evaluating the control capability of the system. It has been shown that the system has the capability to smooth the bead at the high level of quality.     

Welding of thin sheet of Al alloy (6082) by using Vario wire DC P-GMAW

This paper describes an investigation on the micro-structure, weld bead geometry, dilution rate and mechanical properties of the butt and overlap weld joints of 1-mm-thick 6082 aluminium alloy sheet. Weld joints were produced with the help of a variant of gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process, i.e. direct current-pulsed GMAW (DC P-GMAW), using a Vario wire. The capability of the new process has been assessed in terms of dilution, weld bead geometry, mechanical properties and porosity. The welding results with this new process showed good process stability in the welding of thin sheets of aluminium, while weld mismatch was found to increase with an increase in heat input. Weld bead geometry parameters such as weld size, throat and weld convexity increases with the increase in heat input. The dilution in case of lap joints (10–25%) was less than that of butt joints (60–80%). The increase in factor Φ (summarizing the effect of pulse parameters) increases the form factor and lowers the toe angle. Mechanical properties of the welds are poor as the tensile strength of 6082 alloy welds was around 150 MPa, and the percent elongation was about 1.3%, and it was primarily due to high porosity. Porosity (%) in weld joints was found in the range of 0.33–11.59%. The porosity is a major issue with DC P-GMAW welds.     

随焊冲击旋转挤压控制LD10薄板件焊接变形和热裂纹的研究

LD10铝合金薄板在焊接过程中易产生焊接热裂纹,焊后薄板件易产生较大的焊接变形。采用冲击旋转挤压头对焊缝及相邻区域施加一定频率的冲击旋转挤压作用,使焊缝及近缝区产生塑性延展;对LD10常规焊接件和随焊冲击旋转挤压件的焊接残余变形与焊接残余应力进行测量,对比分析了常规焊接件和随焊冲击旋转挤压件的拉伸试验、维氏硬度、断口分析和金相组织,明确了随焊冲击旋转挤压工艺对焊接件组织及性能的影响。试验结果表明,随焊冲击旋转挤压处理后,工件的残余应力被降低到较低水平,随焊冲击旋转挤压工艺起到控制焊接残余应力和变形的作用,并且抑制了焊接热裂纹的产生。     

机械振动对激光焊接接头组织的影响

振动焊接工艺能有效细化接头组织晶粒,降低残余应力,提高焊接质量。为了研究振动焊接工艺在激光焊接方面的应用,选用316不锈钢作为试验材料,利用机械振动辅助激光焊接的工艺方法,通过改变机械振动参数和焊接速度,利用光学显微镜和扫描电镜观察焊后接头组织,对比分析不同振动频率和焊接速度下接头的微观组织形貌。结果表明,机械振动可以细化焊后组织中形成的柱状晶,使柱状枝晶破碎且向不同方向生长,晶轴间与焊缝中心处的等轴晶增加。提高焊接速度后,振动的加入能够细化焊缝区出现的粗大柱状晶。同时,振动可以减少焊后在奥氏体基体晶界处形成的网状高温铁素体和点状碳化物,使其趋于弥散。试验还对焊接接头进行显微硬度测试,发现振动焊接下得到的焊缝区接头组织硬度较高,且较高共振频率下硬度增加明显。