两千年前有球状石墨的铸铁

现代球墨铸铁是英国人 Morrogh 和 Williams 在1947年首先公开宣布研制成功的,它是现代科学技术的产物,三十年来已成为发展最快,最有前途的铸铁材料。但是,远在 Morrogh 之前两千年,只拥有原始技术手段的中国铸造匠师已曾得到石墨形状符合现代球铁标准的铸铁。这虽然难以想象,却是千真万确的铁铸的事实。本文一系列金相照片所示铸铁组织,如果不加说明,任何一个铸造工作者都会毫不迟疑地     

蠕墨铸铁中球状石墨的影响及控制

蠕墨铸铁中石墨形态介于片状和球状之间，故其力学性能介于扶铸铁和球墨铸铁之间，优于灰铸铁，而次于球墨铸铁。热传导性也介于灰铸铁和球墨铸铁之间，但次于灰铸铁，优于球墨铸铁。用蠕化剂生产蠕墨铸铁时，有部分球状石墨仔在，这就提高了力学性能，但降低了热传导性。俺用蠕墨铸铁，如需良好的力学和热传导性能时，则应控制球状石墨数量。本文扼要叙述这方面的一些数据和生产技术问题。     

真空加热球墨铸铁时球状石墨的解体过程——球化衰退机理的研究

对球墨铸铁在真空下加热时球状石墨的变化过程进行了高温金相观察,发现在球状石墨周围基体熔化之前,圆整度较好的致密石墨球沿晶界或其周围的显微缺陷有少量线型生长,周围形成明显的黑环,而其外形基本保持不变。圆整度较差的松散石墨球则具有较大的线型生长,而且在1000℃左右体积也有较大的增长。当石墨球周边的基体出现液相后,碳原子向熔体的扩散速度激增,石墨立即在熔体中开花、解体,过程进行甚快,在我们的观察条件下仅约三十秒钟。对试样随炉冷却时石墨的再结晶过程也进行了观察和常温金相分析。结果表明解体的石墨具有多种形态,且大多起因于其周围基体的熔化,由于直接观察到了奥氏体熔化而使金相磨面产生褶皱,从而可以推断:大断面球铁件中心部份出现畸变石墨的主要原因是由于奥氏体外壳在共晶主平台温度回升时发生重熔而引起的。     

石墨球状化的几个因素

为了研究镁金属对于铸铁结晶之影响,曾使用了多种的试样来研究其金属组织。这些试样是:120公厘直径者,100×100×35公厘者,30公厘直径之冷激试棒经过共晶退火处理者,以及1、8、 12、20公厘直径注入金属模中之试样,在铸铁中加入0.4％的镁和矽铁作为加制剂。砂型中和冷激模中之试样铸品,均用同一25至30公斤之水包存以碳3.0％,矽1.98％、锰0.72％、磷0.058％、硫0.053％成份之铁水浇注之。上述试验中证明,未经加制的铸铁中之石墨是成一般灰铁中的片状石墨存在;而用镁加制后之铸铁中,石墨是成球状存在。如果以镁和矽铁来加制,则铸铁之结构和球状石墨之形状如所示。镁有促进     

测量凝固时的比电阻以确定铸铁中的石墨形状

1.概论生产球墨铸铁时很重要的一点就是要在浇铸前就知道(即能检查)其组织,特别是石墨的形状。这种石墨形状的检查目前在绝大多数铸造企业中是在浇铸铸件之前把经过用镁处理过的铁水浇铸一个圆柱形的试样,然后打断看它的宏观组织,或者作金相检查。前一种方法虽     

一种新的减摩材料——脱石墨铸铁

铁基多孔材料除用粉末冶金法生产外,也可用铸造法来制造,而且后者还具有:无需压制设备、零件尺寸和形状不受限制、成本较低等优点。五十年代出现了生长铸铁。此种铸铁系利用铸铁“生长”的原理,藉十余次反复加热、冷却,在石墨四周形成孔隙而制得的。这种铸铁的主要用途是制作含油轴承,特别是用粉末冶金法难以制造的大型含油轴承,可使用于纺织机械、冶金机械、机床、车辆等工业部门。这种材料的缺点是热处理周期甚长。近年来又出现了另一种新的多孔铸铁-脱石墨铸铁。这种材料是将特殊成分的过共晶灰铸铁于氧化性气氛中进行加热处     

铸铁中石墨形态和石墨结构的研究

采用扫描电子显微镜,通过深腐蚀和热腐蚀方法,研究了铸铁中各种典型石墨（片状石墨、蠕虫状石墨和球状石墨）的立体形貌和内部结构特征。对于片状石墨来说,A、C、D型均属同一种石墨形态,它们都是由分枝而又互相联系的石墨片组成,它们主要是沿着[1010]方向长大。对于球状石墨来说,用纯镁、纯钇、纯铈和工业球化剂均能得到球状石墨。热腐蚀结果表明,石墨球呈年轮状结构,它是由许多角锥体组成的多面体。这说明,石墨球的外表是（0001）面,石墨球的长大是由中心沿[0001]方向进行。蠕虫状石墨是介于片状和球状石墨之间的中间石墨形态。它的长大方式也介于片状和球状石墨之间。就石墨片的互相联系和彼此分枝情况来看,它与片状石墨相似,但就每个石墨片局部的长大方式来看,它又与球状石墨有某种程度的相似,即沿着[0001]方向长大较充分。     

蠕虫状石墨铸铁的断裂

本文提出了铸态珠光体蠕虫状(伪片状)石墨铸铁裂纹的发生和发展机理和研究结果。     

蠕虫状石墨铸铁的结构

本文对蠕墨铸铁进行深腐蚀和热氧腐蚀,并用扫描电子显微镜进行观察研究,揭示了蠕虫状石墨的三维立体形貌和内部晶面取向特征。通过共晶团腐蚀,观察了这种铸铁的共晶团数量和结构特点。结果表明,用各种含有稀土元素的变质剂处理均可得到蠕虫状石墨,其端部具有球状石墨的生长特征,在同一共晶团内部,各蠕虫石墨片间互相联系,这又类似于片状石墨。热氧腐蚀试验表明,蠕虫状石墨端部（0001）面沿圆周方向分布,呈年轮状排列。在枝干分部,则（0001）面沿着枝干方向分布,但其方向变化频繁,呈多晶体。据此,作者提出了蠕虫状石墨晶面取向的模型。蠕墨铸铁的共晶团数量介于灰铸铁和球墨铸铁之间,共晶团的结构也兼有片状石墨和球状石墨两者共晶团的特征。为此,作者也提出了相应的模型。     

球墨铸铁曲轴表面强化处理技术

柴油机曲轴承受复杂交变的弯曲-扭转载荷和一定的冲击载荷,疲劳断裂是曲轴的主要破坏形式,裂纹源易发生在连杆轴颈与曲臂过渡圆角处,工艺上提高曲轴疲劳强度的方法主要是圆角强化,在其表层形成一定的压应力来实现的。介绍了滚压、淬火、氮化、喷丸、激光冲击强化等工艺方法,分析曲轴强化机理和工艺方法,为提高曲轴使用寿命提供了参考。     

球墨铸铁纳米粒子射流微量润滑磨削性能的实验研究

主要对纳米粒子射流微量润滑磨削性能进行实验评价.采用K-P36数控平面磨床,选取干磨削、浇注式磨削、微量润滑磨削和纳米粒子射流微量润滑磨削4种工况条件,分别从磨削力、磨削G比率、磨削温度和表面粗糙度方面进行磨削性能评价,结果表明:纳米粒子射流微量润滑磨削改善了换热能力,与干磨削相比降低了将近150℃,干磨削得到的工件表面粗糙度Ra值为1.2μm,纳米粒子射流微量润滑磨削Ra值为0.58 μm,工件表面质量显著提高;在纳米粒子的润滑作用下,得到的磨削力较稳定,且比干磨削和微量润滑磨削得到的磨削力减小15％以上;纳米粒子射流微量润滑磨削G比率在4种工况中最高,值为33,干磨削仅为12,比其他工况增大约一倍,砂轮的磨损明显减小,延长砂轮使用寿命.     

Comparative research on wear characteristics of spheroidal graphite cast iron and carbon steel

Wear characteristics of a spheroidal graphite cast iron and a carbon steel were studied under atmospheric conditions at 25–400 °C. The spheroidal graphite cast iron presented obviously different wear behaviors from the carbon steel, which may be attributed to the presence of graphite. With an increase of ambient temperature, tribo-oxides of carbon steel substantially increased and its substrate softened, thus severe wear, oxidative mild wear, oxidative wear and extrusive wear took turns to prevail. However, compared with carbon steel in the same case, tribo-oxides were markedly reduced in the spheroidal graphite cast iron, thus oxidative mild wear and oxidative wear did not appear due to the lack of oxides. It is suggested that less tribo-oxides in the spheroidal graphite cast iron may be attributed to the reduction of graphite to tribo-oxides during sliding.     

Influence of graphite nodules on the particles erosion of spheroidal graphite cast irons

The influence of graphite nodules on the normal angle erosion of the spheroidal graphite cast irons with four different matrices, namely ferrite, upper bainite, lower bainite and martensite, was investigated. The results indicate that, in the range investigated (10-15 area pet), graphite nodules (with variations in area percent and size) did not exert any influence in the irons with ferrite or upper bainite matrix. However, in the case of the spheroidal graphite cast iron with martensitic matrix, both increasing area percent and decreasing diameter of graphite nodules did in fact raise the erosion rate; moreover, those cast in metal molds consistently experienced higher erosion rate than those cast in sand molds. For the irons with a lower bainite matrix, increasing the amount of graphite nodules raises the erosion rate for those cast in sand molds, but did not affect the erosion rate for those cast in metal molds; furthermore, the erosion rate of the sanded-molded irons was consistently higher than their metal molded counterparts. The different roles of graphite nodules on the erosion rates of the spheroidal graphite cast irons are discussed.     

Study on mechanism of chip formation during high-speed milling of alloy cast iron

By adopting an equivalent geometry model of chip, a finite element model was developed to study the mechanism of chip formation during high-speed milling of alloy cast iron. Several key technologies such as material constitutive model, friction model, chip separation criteria, chip damage criteria, heat dissipation, and transfer were implemented to improve the accuracy of finite element simulation. Saw-tooth chip of alloy cast iron was observed. The chip shape and cutting force agreed well with experimental results. The simulation results show that the maximum cutting temperature produced with appearance of saw-tooth chip crack, and it is located on the chip-tool contact surface. The saw-tooth chip is caused by double actions of thermoplastic instability and plastic instability. The chip saw-tooth degree decreases when increasing the rotating speed, while it increases when increasing the feed speed. This work provides a useful understanding for chip formation process and helps to optimize machining parameters and process of high-speed milling of alloy cast iron.     

The unlubricated wear of flake graphite cast iron

The wear behaviour of flake graphite cast iron was correlated with the microstructural parameters of graphite volume fraction and flake size using a pin-on-ring specimen configuration. Pin specimens of cast iron were prepared under carefully controlled melting and casting conditions to provide microstructures with variation in either carbon content or flake size but with the same type A graphite structure and pearlitic matrix.Mild and severe modes of equilibrium wear were identified, the predominant effect of both microstructural parameters being in the severe wear regime. Decrease in flake size and increase in carbon content are detrimental to the wear behaviour resulting in a marked increase in the severe wear rate and a decrease in the mild-to-severe transition load.     

Wear of spheroidal graphite cast irons for tractor drive train components

This study was prompted by a desire to improve the wear resistance of power transmission components in rear axle drives on commercial farm tractors. Reciprocating wear tests were conducted under lubricated and non-lubricated conditions on three spheroidal cast irons which varied in strength and hardness (designated GGG450, GGG600, and GGG700). Hemispherically tipped steel pins (designated 42CrMoS4/41CrS4) were used as the sliders. Except for the selection of the test duration, test procedures were similar to those described in ASTM Standard Test Method G133 for linearly reciprocating sliding. Among the three cast irons tested, the harder and stronger the alloy, the lower was its wear rate. Wear factors were approximately four orders of magnitude lower for experiments lubricated with fresh, fully formulated oil. There was a linear relationship between the Brinell hardness of the alloys and the negative logarithm of the wear factors that were expressed in mm³/N-m. Wear of lubricated test pins was not measurable due to the presence of deposits; however under non-lubricated sliding, the ratio of the wear of the flat specimen to that of the pin decreased as the hardness of the flat specimens approached that of the pin specimen.     

Microscopic approach to micromechanism of damage in spheroidal cast iron

In this work, the observations of the fracture surface after standard tensile tests of several kinds of spheroidal cast irons, ferritic and austempered ductile irons, have been carried out by means of scanning electron microscopy. The local crack path in the area of graphite (G)/matrix (M) interface has been analyzed as affected by a matrix phase composition and the austempering treatment parameters. The obtained results allowed identifying some determination factors for debonding mode at the G/M interface and their role in a final damage mechanism. Some microstructural details in the microregions composed of graphite and matrix showed that the G–M debonding mode in the separation area of the G/M interface seems to be controlled by macroscopic properties of the alloy and by the morphology of G/M interface. On the other hand, the internal destruction of graphite nodule has been mainly determined by a structure and anisotropy of graphite crystal lattice.     

Sliding wear of graphite crystallized chromium white cast iron

The effects of sliding velocity, heat-treatment and graphite shape on sliding wear of graphite crystallized chromium white cast iron were studied. Two types of graphite crystallized chromium white cast irons having flaky or spheroidal and another type of 2.6C–15Cr white cast iron were prepared for this study. The effect of sliding velocity on wear resistance was studied by the Okoshi type and pin-on-disk type wear tests on materials which have experienced “as cast” and “heat-treated” conditions. The Okoshi type wear test results are divided into two relationships depending on sliding velocity or distance. Two regimes, initial wear and steady-state wear, existed for wear loss and sliding distance. A characteristic form of wear curve with a peak and a minimum was obtained when correlating wear loss and sliding velocity. The wear resistance of graphite crystallized chromium white cast irons were superior to that of 2.6C–15Cr white cast iron. In the results of pin-on-disk tests, there was no clear difference in the reported wear loss and friction coefficient among the alloys. However, an opposite tendency has appeared in the wear loss and friction coefficient: the wear loss value reached a peak in the wear curve at 0.52 m/s, while the friction coefficient reached a minimum at 0.52 m/s.     

Wear mechanism and chemical composition optimization of complex-alloyed cast iron with spheroidal vanadium carbide under conditions of abrasive erosion

Using full factorial design in experiment 3², the contents of vanadium and chromium in heattreated V–Cr–Mn–Ni cast irons with spheroidal vanadium carbide have been optimized with regard to the conditions of quartz sand erosion. It has been found that, in the case of bulk quenching from 760°C (or in combination with a subsequent plasma surface hardening), the maximum wear resistance of cast iron is achieved at 5.0% V and 2.0–4.5% Cr and, in the case of bulk quenching from 840°C followed by cryogenic treatment (–196°C), at 5.0% V and 7.0–9.0% Cr. It has been shown that the wear mechanism of the investigated alloys consists of the repeated deformation (indentation) of the matrix accompanied with spalling of spheroidal carbides and with chipping of eutectic carbides. Spheroidal vanadium carbides provide an effective protection of dendrites regions against erosion due to their uniform distribution in the bulk of the alloys.