Determination of epithelial tissue scattering coefficient using confocal microscopy

Most models of light propagation through tissue assume the scattering properties of the various tissue layers are the same. The authors present evidence that the scattering coefficient of normal cervical epithelium is significantly lower than values previously reported for bulk epithelial tissue. They estimated the scattering coefficient of normal and precancerous cervical epithelium using measurements of the reflectance as a function of depth from confocal images. Reflectance measurements were taken from ex vivo cervical biopsies and fit to an exponential function based upon Beer's law attenuation. The mean scattering coefficients derived were 22 cm/sup -1/ for normal tissue and 69 cm/sup -1/ for precancerous tissue. These values are significantly lower than previously reported for bulk epithelial tissues and suggest that scattering of bulk tissue is dominated by the stroma. They also suggest that computational models to describe light propagation in epithelial tissue must incorporate different scattering coefficients for the epithelium and stroma. Further, the lower scattering of the epithelium suggests greater probing depths for fiber optic probes used by optical diagnostic devices which measure reflectance and fluorescence in epithelial tissue. The difference in scattering between normal and precancerous tissue is attributed to increased nuclear size, optical density, and chromatin texture. The scattering coefficients measured here are consistent with predictions of numerical solutions to Maxwell's equations for epithelial cell scattering.     

Sonophoretic Delivery for Contrast and Depth Improvement in Skin Optical Coherence Tomography

Our previous studies demonstrated the feasibility of using a sonophoretic delivery method to enhance skin light transmittance with topical application of optical clearing agents using spectroscopy. In this study, we examined the effect of ultrasound [surgeon-performed (SP)] on optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging depth and contrast of in vitro and in vivo skin. Sixty percent glycerol (G) and SP with a frequency of 1 MHz and a power of 0.75 W over a 3 cm probe was simultaneously applied for 15 min. We find that 60% G/SP results in a twofold increase in achievable OCT imaging depth for in vitro porcine skin and induces 11% shrinkage of the skin. For in vivo human skin, OCT imaging depth and contrast is significantly improved within 30 min of treatment. Imaging depth is increased from 1.4 to 2 mm, and dermal vasculature is clearly visualized in the deeper tissue. OCT imaging of the skin treated with 60% glycerol shows little enhancement in contrast or imaging depth over 60 min. We first demonstrate the superb ability of sonophoretic delivery for in vivo human skin optical clearing, particularly in accelerating the clearing rate. The greater clearing efficiency of glycerol implemented with ultrasound may be attributed to more effective dehydration.     

In Vivo Cell Tracking With Video Rate Multimodality Laser Scanning Microscopy

Studies of biological processes, such as disease progression and response to therapy, call for live imaging methods that allow continuous observation without terminating the study subject for histological tissue processing. Among all current imaging modalities, optical microscopy is the only method capable of probing live tissue with cellular and subcellular resolution. We present a video-rate (30 frames/s), multimodality imaging system that is designed specifically for live animal imaging and cell tracking. In vivo depth-sectioned, high-resolution images are obtained using confocal and nonlinear optical techniques that extract structural, functional, and molecular information by combining multiple contrast mechanisms, including back scattering, fluorescence (from single- and two-photon excitation), second harmonic generation, and coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering. Simultaneous use of up to three modalities is possible and eliminates the need for coregistration, especially on large-scale images. A real-time movement correction algorithm was developed to extend integration times in cases where the image needs to be stabilized against subject movement. Finally, imaging of fast moving leukocytes in blood vessels is made possible with a modification that permits operation at 120 frames/s over a smaller area. Sample imagery obtained in vivo with the microscope is presented to illustrate the capabilities.     

Near-infrared (NIR) tomography breast image reconstruction with a priori structural information from MRI: algorithm development for reconstructing heterogeneities

A combined magnetic resonance and near-infrared (MRI-NIR) imaging modality can potentially yield high resolution maps of optical properties from noninvasive simultaneous measurement. The main disadvantage of near-infrared (NIR) tomography lies in the low spatial resolution resulting from the highly scattering nature of tissue for these wavelengths. MRI has achieved high resolution, but suffers from low specificity. In this study, NIR image reconstruction algorithms that incorporate a priori structural information provided by MRI are investigated in an attempt to optimize recovery of a simulated optical property distribution. The effect of high levels of tissue heterogeneity are evaluated to determine the limitations of incorporating prior information into a realistic set of patient breast images. We assume absorption coefficient (/spl mu//sub a/) variations near /spl plusmn/40%, and transport scattering coefficient (/spl mu//sub s//sup //) variations near /spl plusmn/20%, in a coronal breast MRI geometry. Changes in tissue pathology due to tumor growth can be observed with NIR tompgraphy, and so the goal here is to determine how best to quantify these tumor-based contrast regions within the presence of high tissue heterogeneity. By applying knowledge of tissue's layered structure in reconstruction through various constraints in the iterative algorithm, quantitative recovery of the tumor optical properties improves from 69% to 74%, and localization improves as well. However, only when the true heterogeneity of the tissue distribution was included was accurate quantification of the tumor region possible. Using a good initial guess of /spl mu//sub a/ and /spl mu//sub s//sup //, derived from the regional structure of the model, quantification of the region reaches 99% of the true value, and spatial resolution retains a similar value to the original MRI image.     

An Optical Imaging Technique Using Deep Illumination in the Angular Domain

This paper describes a novel optical imaging method, deep illumination angular domain imaging (ADI), for detecting micron-scale objects within highly scattering media. The new optical imaging is a much simpler and less expensive solution as compared to other available optical imaging techniques. In principle, deep illumination ADI uses collimation detection capabilities of small acceptance angle devices to extract photons emitted from the scattered light created by a laser source, aimed deep beneath the turbid medium surface. The laser source forms an illumination ball within the medium that emits scattered light in all directions and illuminates objects near the surface from behind. Consequently, when photons from this illumination ball pass an object and reach the angular filter, light that is not subsequently scattered passes through to a camera detector, whereas scattered photons are rejected by the filter. Image results obtained are recorded for different phantom locations, phantom sizes, and medium scattering levels. Our images clearly display sub-204 m phantoms when placed 3 mm deep within a test scattering medium with total effective attenuation coefficient (mu'_eff) up to 5.8^-1 cm or 2.5 mm deep in chicken tissue tests. Preliminary digital image processing shows the image contrast enhancement and the definition improvement.     

基于超声波衰减效应的悬移质粒径分布反演

粒径分布是两相流的一项重要参数,为了实现其准确快速的测量,本文提出了一种超声波衰减效应与人工蜂群反演算法相结合的粒径分布测量方法。设计了基于聚焦式超声波传感器的悬移质参数测量系统,用于获得超声衰减信号并得到有效的实验衰减系数。根据理论声衰减模型求得理论衰减系数,构造理论衰减系数与实验衰减系数的误差函数作为目标函数。引入人工蜂群算法,优化目标函数,通过反演获得最优粒径分布。实验分别对三种不同分布的悬移质样本进行测量并采用筛分法作为对照实验,进行误差因素分析。结果表明,在实验范围内,该方法有较高的可行性与准确性,可为自由水体中悬移质粒径分布的测量提供一条新的思路。     

A behavioral model for optically powered OCT endoscope with a micro electrostatic vertical‐comb optical scanner

This paper presents a novel device architecture for optically actuated microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) endoscopes for optical coherence tomography (OCT) measurement. A 10‐mW infrared light beam at a wavelength of 1.5 µm is transferred through the single‐mode fiber to provide a scanning MEMS mirror with the drive voltage (maximum 11 V) by exciting a photovoltaic cell, while also providing with a secondary light beam at a wavelength of 1.3 µm for the OCT measurement. An electrostatic vertical comb‐drive optical scanner (1.5 mm × 2.0 mm × 0.5 mm) has been developed by using the deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) of a silicon‐on‐insulator (SOI) wafer. The design of the scanner module is discussed, along with the experimental results of electrostatic operation. An equivalent circuit model for the optical scanner is developed to explain the behavior of the optically powered actuation mechanism, including the hysteresis loop in the frequency response and the voltage dependence of oscillating angle (mechanical peak ±3.2°/7 V around the resonance frequency of 250 Hz). OCT measurement of a tissue is demonstrated to reconstruct the cross‐sectional image of a fingerprint at a resolution of lateral 40 µm × vertical 8 µm and penetration depth of 2.5 mm. © 2014 Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Noninvasive blood glucose assay using a newly developed near-infrared system

This paper reports in vivo near-infrared (NIR) noninvasive blood glucose assay using dermis tissue spectra. We assume that the glucose content in dermis tissue traces the variations in blood glucose. For dermis spectra measurements, epidermis, especially stratum corneum, acts as an interference in skin tissue. Thus, we have developed a method for the selective measurement of dermis tissue spectra, enabling us to obtain better quality spectra for an accurate blood glucose assay. The selective measurement of the dermis spectra realized by using a newly developed fiber-optic probe that consists of source and detector optical fibers separated by 0.65 mm on a skin surface. The light path in the skin tissue for this geometry has been simulated by a Monte Carlo method. The simulation results show that detected light mainly interrogates dermis tissue. As the absorbance signal of glucose in human tissue is extremely small, the quality of the measured spectra is critical for the reliable assay. The present method for blood glucose assay has been applied to one Type 1 diabetic. The correlation coefficient between the blood glucose content predicted by NIR spectra and those measured by finger-prick was 0.928 and the standard error of prediction was 32.2 mg/dL. These results demonstrate the potential of our methodology for noninvasive NIR blood glucose assay.     

基于四象限探测器的线性光学电流互感器

基于径向检偏原理的线性光学电流互感器(OCT)将磁致旋光角转换为同步旋转的光斑图像,通过电荷偶联相机对光斑条纹定位实现电流测量,克服了传统光强检测模式的动态测量范围窄、非线性、光功率依赖性、线双折射干扰和温漂等缺陷。但是其图像检测方法仍然存在成本高、分辨率低、算法误差大等问题,尤其是在小电流测量时误差较大,难以达到S级要求。针对这些问题,提出了一种采用四象限探测器测量光斑图像旋转角的方法并应用于线性OCT中,具有成本低、算法简单、分辨率高、精度高等优点。经过理论分析和实验验证,在±40°磁致旋光角范围内测量分辨率提高了近100倍,测量准确度从0.5级提高到了0.2S级,图像检测单元的成本降低了95%以上。     

Optical coherence tomography for ophthalmic imaging: new techniquedelivers micron-scale resolution

The authors have developed a new technique for micron scale resolution cross-sectional imaging of ocular and other biological tissue, called optical coherence tomography (OCT). OCT is similar to B-scan ultrasonic imaging, except that image contrast relies on differences in optical rather than acoustic backscattering characteristics of tissue. In contrast to ultrasound and nonlinear optical gating techniques, low-coherence interferometry is used to resolve the position of reflective or optical backscattering sites within a sample. Two-dimensional tomographic images of a thin, optical slice of tissue may be obtained with 10 μm longitudinal and lateral resolution. Optical heterodyne detection and the application of noise-reduction techniques originally developed for optical communication achieve sensitivity to reflected light as small as 10^-10 of the incident optical power. OCT is non-contact, non-invasive, and has superior resolution to conventional clinical ultrasound. Unlike scanning laser ophthalmoscopy and scanning laser tomography, the optical sectioning capability of OCT is not limited by the pupil aperture and ocular aberrations. OCT may be implemented in a compact, low-cost, fiber-optic based interferometer that is easily coupled to existing ophthalmic instrumentation. Here, the authors demonstrate high-speed in vivo OCT imaging in both the anterior and posterior eye, and highlight the system's potential usefulness for the early diagnosis and quantitative monitoring of a variety of ocular diseases and treatments     

独立量自适应光学电流传感原理及其应用

根据光学电流传感器的开环机理,只有从外部为光学电流传感器引入新的独立量才能消除环境温度等外因的影响以实现高精度测量.论文提出了一种新的独立量自适应光学传感理论,即通过对两组或两组以上的独立输出量进行自适应运算获得与干扰无关的测量结果.应用该理论设计了光路独立量自适应光学电流传感器和光电独立量自适应光学电流传感器.并以标准检测系统为测试平台对光电独立量自适应光学电流传感器的测量性能进行了检测,结果证明该传感器已达到了0.2级的测量水平.     

Angular domain imaging of objects within highly scattering media using silicon micromachined collimating arrays

Optical imaging of objects within highly scattering media, such as tissue, requires the detection of ballistic/quasi-ballistic photons through these media. Recent works have used phase/coherence domain or time domain tomography (femtosecond laser pulses) to detect the shortest path photons through scattering media. This work explores an alternative, angular domain imaging, which uses collimation detection capabilities of small acceptance angle devices to extract photons emitted aligned closely to a laser source. It employs a high aspect ratio, micromachined collimating detector array fabricated by high-resolution silicon surface micromachining. Consider a linear collimating array of very high aspect ratio (200: 1) containing 51/spl times/1000 /spl mu/m etched channels with 102-/spl mu/m spacing over a 10-mm silicon width. With precise array alignment to a laser source, unscattered light passes directly through the channels to the charge coupled device detector and the channel walls absorb the scattered light at angles >0.29/spl deg/. Objects within a scattering medium were scanned quickly with a computer-controlled Z axis table. High-resolution images of 100-/spl mu/m-wide lines and spaces were detected at scattered-to-ballistic ratios of 5/spl times/10/sup 5/: 1, with objects located near the middle of the sample seen at even higher levels. At >5/spl times/10/sup 6/: 1 ratios, a uniform background of scattered illumination degrades the image contrast unless recovered by background subtraction. Monte Carlo simulation programs designed to test the angular domain imaging concept showed that the collimator detects the shortest path length photons, as in other optical tomography methods. Furthermore, the collimator acts as an optical filter to remove scattered light while preserving the image resolution. Simulations suggest smaller channels and longer arrays could enhance detection by >100.     

The effect of light losses in double integrating spheres on opticalproperties estimation

The double integrating sphere setup (DIS) measures diffuse reflectance, diffuse transmittance and collimated transmittance, from which the optical properties of tissue (the absorption coefficient μ _a, the scattering coefficient μ_s and the anisotropy of scattering g) are estimated. The effect of light losses in the DIS and optical thickness on optical properties estimation by the inverse adding doubling algorithm (IAD) and uniqueness of measurement have been investigated using a Monte Carlo method. Results were obtained for optical properties in turbid tissues (0.80⩽albedo⩽0.99, 0.80⩽anisotropy⩽ 0.99, 1.5⩽optical thickness⩽7.5) sandwiched between glass slides. At optical thickness=6.0 the loss of light through the glass slides is ranging from 13%±0.5% (at albedo=0.80) to 15%±0.5% (at albedo=0.98) of the incident power. The loss of light at the exit port in the transmittance sphere is increasing up to 50% of the incident power at highly forward scattering. These losses result in a dependency on optical thickness of the optical properties estimation by the IAD algorithm. Furthermore, because of these losses, the DIS setup measurement is found to be fundamentally nonunique, when simultaneously measuring the diffuse reflectance, diffuse transmittance and collimated transmittance     

基于粒子滤波的光学电流互感器信号处理方法研究

有效滤除噪声,提高信噪比（SNR）和测量精度是光学电流互感器(OCT)信号处理的重要环节。介绍了基于法拉第效应的光学电流互感器的基本原理和信噪特性。针对光学电流互感器低信噪比的特性,提出了采用粒子滤波的方法来从时域的角度提高输出信噪比。在被测电流为直流和交流两种情况下,分别建立合适的滤波动态空间模型,选择合适的参数后采用裂变自举粒子滤波算法（FBPF）在Matlab上进行两种情况下的仿真验证,结果表明粒子滤波算法能够有效地提高输出信噪比和测量精度。     

比较式光学电流互感器的信号解调

长期稳定性是光学电流互感器(OCT)实用化的关键问题之一.比较式OCT在传统OCT的基础上,引入永磁体产生的恒定磁场作为参考磁场,通过将被测电流磁场与参考磁场相比较得到最终的电流测量结果,实现了对光学传感头的Verdet常数和线性双折射的同时补偿,使OCT的实用成为可能.针对新的传感头结构,设计了全新的双光源双输出信号解调方式以及基于此原理的信号解调系统.初步的线性度试验结果验证了该解调方式的正确性,同时也表明所设计的比较式OCT满足IEC标准规定的0.2级电子式电流互感器的精度要求.     

Tutorial on Photoacoustic Microscopy and Computed Tomography

The field of photoacoustic tomography has experienced considerable growth in the past few years. Although several commercially available pure optical imaging modalities, including confocal microscopy, two-photon microscopy, and optical coherence tomography, have been highly successful, none of these technologies can provide penetration beyond ~1 mm into scattering biological tissues, because they are based on ballistic and quasi-ballistic photons. Heretofore, there has been a void in high-resolution optical imaging beyond this penetration limit. Photoacoustic tomography, which combines high ultrasonic resolution and strong optical contrast in a single modality, has broken through this limitation and filled this void. In this paper, the fundamentals of photoacoustics are first introduced. Then, scanning photoacoustic microscopy and reconstruction-based photoacoustic tomography (or photoacoustic computed tomography) are covered.     

Measurement of the axial point spread function in scattering media using single-mode fiber-based optical coherence tomography

The authors studied the axial point spread function of optical coherence tomography for Gaussian intensity profiles emitted from and coupled back into single-mode fibers for signals from a scattering medium. The determined Rayleigh length of the axial point spread function was roughly twice the one measured from the reflection of a mirror. Using the measured point spread function in combination with the single backscatter model allowed determination of the attenuation coefficient of the suspension.     

超大型地面天线辐射特性实地测量技术

针对口径超过 10 m 的超大型地面天线由于极高成本难以进行精确测量的难题,提出了基于无人机的平面近场实地测 量方法。 首先对无人机散射、定位精度及测量场区选择等影响天线实地测量结果的主要因素进行了仿真分析,确定了测量区 域。 采用多旋翼无人机和高精度飞控技术,在高性能无人机最好 20 mm 飞控精度、5 mm 测量精度的条件下,进行了天线实地测 量系统的射频链路设计,并给出了两种近远场数据变换方法,可以有效解决在较高频段无人机定位精度差导致测量结果不可信 的问题。 采用实例分析验证了方法的有效性,为超大型地面天线低成本精确测量提供了较好的解决途径。     

Investigation of optical clearing of gastric tissue immersed with hyperosmotic agents

In order to understand the role of water desorption and the mass transport process in the optical clearing effect on gastric tissues with the application of hyperosmotic agents, the porcine stomach tissues (pyloric mucosa) applied topically with glycerol and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) are investigated with optical coherence tomography (OCT) and the near infrared reflectance spectroscopy. Three solutions of 80% and 50% glycerol, and 50% DMSO are studied, each of which shows significant improvement in light transmittance and, thus, reduction of the light scattering of tissue. It is found that, among the solutions investigated, 80% glycerol achieves the best clearing effect on improvement of both the light penetration and imaging contrast. More detailed microstructures of the mucosal layer can be observed for glycerol treatment, while these structures are not resolvable by the conventional OCT. Light transmittance is increased by approximately 23% and diffuse reflectance decreased by approximately 24% at 30 min after the topical application of 80% glycerol. 50% DMSO is more effective than 50% glycerol only at the beginning stage; thereafter the rate of optical clearing is slowed down with time. Although DMSO can enhance the light transmittance and thus reduce the scattering, it has a negligible effect on the imaging contrast improvement. The mass transport process of agent to tissue accounts for the different clearing effects for glycerol and DMSO, respectively. It is concluded that the optical clearing by the hyperosmotic agent is strongly correlated with the water desorption kinetics induced by agent and the agent mass transport process within tissue. In other words, the tissue dehydration induced by agent and the refractive index matching between the agent and the main scattering components within tissue facilitated by the agent mass transport are responsible for optical clearing effects.     

比较式光学电流互感器的分析设计与试验研究

缺乏长期稳定性是光学电流互感器走向实用化、实现大面积推广的主要阻碍,针对这一问题,提出一种新补偿方案--比较式光学电流互感器。它将光学测量法与比较测量法相结合,巧妙地实现了对线性双折射和Verdet常数这两个稳定性影响因子的同时补偿。设计了双输入双输出的解调方法及相应的传感头结构和信号处理单元。这种解调方法可以更好地克服光路及电路的不一致对测量结果的影响,提升互感器的整体性能。试验结果表明：比较式光学电流互感器的线性度可达到IEC 0.2级要求;在光学电流互感器适用的220 kV以上电压等级应用场合,比较式光学电流互感器具有较好的抗干扰性能;在50 ℃温度变化范围内,普通光学电流互感器的误差变化量高达16%,而比较式光学电流互感器的误差变化仅有1%,证实了基于比较法的补偿方案的有效性。