Life Prediction of Thin Organic Films by a Combination of Digital Shearography and Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

A critical (steady state) value of the conductivity of different organic coatings was determined by a combination of digital shearography and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The behavior of organic coatings, i.e., ACE premium-gray enamel, white enamel, beige enamel (spray coatings), a yellow acrylic lacquer, and a gold nail polish on a metallic alloy, i.e., a carbon steel, was investigated over a temperature range of 20–60 °C. The value of the conductivity of coatings was determined by correlating the in-plan displacement of the coating (by shearography over a temperature range 20–60 °C) and the value of the alternating current impedance of the coating by EIS in 3% NaCl solution. The integrity of the coatings with respect to time was assessed by comparing the measured value of conductivity to the critical (steady state) or asymptotic value of conductivity. In other words, by shearography, measurement of coating properties could be performed independent of parameters such as UV exposure, humidity, presence of chemical species, and other parameters which may normally interfere with conventional methods of the assessing of the integrity of coatings. Therefore, one may measure the conductivity of coatings, regardless of the history of the coating, in order to assess the integrity of coatings. Also, the obtained shearography data were found to be in a reasonable trend with the data of EIS in 3% NaCl solution.     

Study of the delamination of diamond coatings under thermal stress

The influence of the thickness of CVD diamond coatings on the adhesion to a substrate, after cooling down from deposition temperature to room temperature, has been studied experimentally and theoretically. Diamond layers have been deposited at 850°C on W substrates by microwave plasma enhanced CVD. Cooling down of the substrate-diamond coating system to room temperature induces thermal stresses, due to different thermal expansion coefficients of coating and substrate. For thick diamond coatings a total and sudden delamination could be observed as a consequence of these stresses. On the contrary thin coatings, produced under identical circumstances, adhered well. These phenomena have been modelled and explained by the use of an energetic criterion for the delamination of a two-layer system under thermal stress. From the model a critical thickness of the coating can be calculated. Above this critical thickness, delamination will suddenly occur. The calculations also predict that for intermediate coating thicknesses delamination can easily be induced by external causes.     

电沉积Co-Ni-Al2O3复合镀层微观结构及高温性能

在氨基磺酸盐电解液中,利用复合电沉积技术制备得到了Co-Ni合金基中弥散分布Al₂O₃颗粒的金属基复合镀层。通过SEM,AFM以及XRD等分析测试方法,研究了Co-Ni-Al₂O₃复合镀层的表面形貌和微观晶体结构。结果发现:Co-Ni-Al₂O₃的表面形貌和微观晶体结构主要受镀层中钴含量的影响。高钴含量复合镀层具有Hcp结构,其表面形貌比具有Fcc结构的低钴含量镀层的表面更加均匀细致。Al₂O₃颗粒在Co-Ni合金中的共沉积,没有改变合金固溶体的相组成,但却改变了各晶面的优势生长。通过研究复合镀层的硬度、高温耐磨性、高温抗氧化性、热膨胀系数和热导率表明:Co-Ni-Al₂O₃具有较好的高温耐磨性和高温抗氧化能力,并且高钴含量的复合镀层相对于低钴镀层具有较低的热膨胀系数和较高的热导率。      

The microstructure and wear resistance characteristics of electroformed nickel and partially stabilized zirconia composite coatings

Ni-PSZ composite coatings with various PSZ particle content were prepared by the electroforming technique. The microstructure and surface components of the coatings have been examined by optical microscopy, electron microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis and the wear properties of the coatings tested on a reciprocating wear test machine. The results show that the PSZ particles are uniformly dispersed in the coatings and thus increase the wear resistance of the coatings by inhibiting plastic deformation of the nickel matrix. The co-deposition of the PSZ particles in the electrolyte is mainly in the form of agglomeration and is accompanied by the incorporation of Ni(OH)₂. When the PSZ content in a coating is higher than a critical value, the wear resistance of the coating could deteriorate because of the decrease in the integrity of the nickel matrix. After heat-treatment at high temperature, Ni(OH)₂ in the coating is turned into Ni₂O₃ and NiO which can wet the PSZ particles and increase the bonding strength between the PSZ and nickel. In addition, the agglomerated PSZ particles are sintered when heat-treated. These are all beneficial to increasing the wear resistance of the coating.     

The effects of coating materials in spark ignition engine design

Ceramic coatings provide good thermal barrier properties for designers. In the design of adiabatic engines, reducing in-cylinder heat rejection requires very special thermal barrier coatings on the engine combustion chamber. Partially, thermal barrier coating (TBC) on the top surface of the piston in the annulus form is considered as a solution for unburned HC emission produced by incomplete combustion with respect to crevice volume after SI engines start (the three-way catalytic converter is not yet activated in the period of first 120 s). Because TBC on the top piston surface decreases the thermal conductivity and increases the unburned charge oxidation by increasing the temperature in the flame quenching area near the entrance of the crevice volume between the piston and liner during the compression and the early part of the expansion strokes.In this study, a steady-state thermal analysis was performed to evaluate the temperature gradients in the standard and two different partially stabilized ceramic coated pistons by using Abaqus© finite element (FE) software. A sharp increase in the temperature of the coated area of the piston was observed as a result of FE simulations. It is concluded that the annulus Y-PSZ coating may contribute better, as compared to Mg-PSZ, to decrease the cold start and steady state HC emissions without auto ignition, since the temperature in the area shows a local sharp increase.     

Effect of Differential Thermal Expansion Coefficient on Stresses Generated in Coating

Two different spraying powders [81FVNS and 80% (443)+20% (105)] were plasma sprayed on two types of substrates (AISI 316 and Ti) in order to verify the effect of differential thermal expansion coefficient (DTEC) between coating and substrate on the final residual stresses generated in the coating. Modulus of elasticity (E) was evaluated for the substrates and coatings (as a composite beam). Free-standing coatings were used to measure the thermal expansion coefficient, as a function of temperature, of the actual coatings with all defects, impurities and typical lamella structure. The results show that the residual stresses seems to be less dependent on the linear thermal expansion coefficients mismatching between substrate and coating, reflecting the importance of the other sources of stresses. i.e. quenching or deposition stresses induced during spraying. The suitable heat treatment condition of the coated samples may release some or most of the residual stresses. However in some cases the sign of the stress was completely changed as a result of neglecting the quenching stresses.     

Methodology for Mapping the Residual Stress Field in Serviced Rails Using LCR Waves

Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs), as effective thermal protection separating the substrate from high-temperature combustion gases and reducing the substrate temperature, are widely used in aerospace and other fields. During the service cycle of life, surface crack defects, interface disbond defects, and coating thickness changes are the main non-destructive testing (NDT) objects of TBCs. In this paper, the main active infrared thermography NDT techniques including the optical infrared thermography testing, the ultrasonic infrared thermography testing, and the microwave thermography testing techniques are reviewed. Through the summary and highlight of the detection principle and application status of these state-of-the-art techniques, the development of the active infrared thermography DNT technique in TBCs is presented. By comparing the sensitivity, advantages, and disadvantages of the techniques in TBC NDT, can provide a significant reference for researchers to choose an appropriate method. It is noteworthy that fabrication techniques of artificial defects for calibration of the active infrared thermography NDT technique inspection of TBC systems are also reviewed. Moreover, future trends in NDT for the TBC system based on the active infrared thermography NDT technique are also discussed and analyzed.

     

Residual stresses and thermal fatigue in CrN hard coatings characterized by high-temperature synchrotron X-ray diffraction

The aim of this work is to analyze thermal fatigue in hard coatings/substrate composites (i) during slow heating and cooling and (ii) after local cyclic thermal laser pulse experiments. As a model system, CrN coatings with a thickness of 3 µm deposited on steel, hard metal and Si(100) substrates using reactive magnetron sputtering at a temperature of 350 °C are used. The coatings are at first characterized by means of in-situ high-temperature X-ray diffraction (XRD) using a commercially available temperature attachment and by applying heating and cooling rates of less than 0.3 °C/s. The treatment results in the expected reduction of intrinsic stresses which are independent of substrate material but strongly influenced by substrate roughness. To simulate local thermal fatigue, selected coating/substrate composites are thermally cycled using a laser beam of 6 mm in diameter in a temperature range of 50-850 °C applying up to 10⁴ cycles and using heating and cooling rates of about 10³ °C/s. Subsequently, laser cycled samples are analyzed using synchrotron XRD, scanning electron microscopy and focused ion beam technique. Laser pulses cause a reduction of compressive stresses in the coatings and a development of tensile stresses in the substrates accompanied by formation of cracks and ripples. The results show that the changes of the local macro- and micro-strains/stresses in the coatings and in the underlying substrates are strongly interlinked. The stress relaxation in the coatings is caused by recovery effects, by micro-cracks formed in the tensely-stressed coating and by plastic deformation of the metallic substrates.     

Effect of parameters on adhesion strength for slurry spray coating technique

In this article, slurry spray technique (SST) has been adopted for depositing mullite–nickel based environmental barrier coatings (EBCs) on some ASTM 1018 low-carbon steel. Considerable value of adhesion strength of a deposited cermet is critical for the coating to comply with service condition. The effect of identified process parameters like stamping pressure, fly ash content, sintering additive, sintering time, and sintering temperature on optimizing adhesion strength is evaluated. Parametric assessment of the developed coatings is done utilizing Taguchi L₁₈ orthogonal array and analysis of variance (ANOVA). Based on the analytical study of the experimentation, the dependence of adhesion strength of slurry sprayed coatings on the process parameters has been studied. Maximum adhesion strength value of 18.15?MPa was attained during experimentation within the range of the selected control parameters. The enhanced adhesion strength was found for increased sintering temperature up to 950°C which may be attributed to the improved sintering of mullite mixed fly ash due to lowering of secondary mullitization temperature. Furthermore, it has been proven experimentally that the quality of coatings achieved in this work is acceptable and approaching to the quality of thermal coatings manufactured with commercially available fabrication methods.     

Residual stress and thermal cycling of planar solid oxide fuel cells

Abstract

The published literature relating to damage to planar solid oxide fuel cells caused by thermally induced stresses and thermal cycling is reviewed. This covers reported studies of thermal cycling performance and stresses induced by temperature gradients and differences in thermal expansion coefficients in typical planar SOFC configurations, namely electrolyte supported; anode supported and inert substrate supported cells. Generally good agreement is found between electrolyte residual stresses measured by X-ray diffraction or cell curvature and stresses calculated from simple thermo-elastic analysis. Finite element modelling of temperature distributions in cells and stacks in steady state operation are well advanced and capable of being extended to compute stress distributions. Failure criteria are then discussed for laminated cell structures based on critical energy release rate fracture mechanics models developed originally for coatings. However, in most cases the data required to apply the models quantitatively (such as elastic moduli of actual laminated material and fracture energies of materials and interfaces) are not available. Where data are available there are inconsistencies that require resolution. Seals are critical components in many planar solid oxide fuel cell configurations, but again there are discrepancies in experimental mechanical properties and the role of internal stresses in their fracture. In addition, there is as yet no firm evidence that thermal cycling damage involves any true materials fatigue process.     

Effects of metal coating on the fiber Bragg grating temperature sensing characteristics

Effects of the metal coatings on the fiber Bragg grating (FBG) temperature sensing characteristics were simulated and experimentally investigated. Temperature sensitivity of the coated FBG as a function of the coating material properties was simulated using MATLAB software based on the temperature sensing model. The simulation results show that the elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio, thermal expansion coefficient and coating thickness of the coatings have noticeable impacts on the sensing characteristics of the coated FBG. It is noted that (i) there is an extreme value for the influence of the elastic modulus on temperature sensitivity; (ii) temperature sensitivity increases with the increase of Poisson’s ratio and thermal expansion coefficient; (iii) with the increase of the coating thickness, the temperature sensitivity increases first then reaches a plateau asymptotically. To validate the simulation results, several FBGs were coated with copper, nickel, cobalt, copper–zinc, and Ni–ZrO₂, and subsequently the associated temperature sensitivities were measured using a network analyzer as well as a water bath. The results show that the simulation results agree well with that of the experiments, with the errors up to 5.49%.     

等离子喷涂HA/Ti复合涂层研究 I.结构、组成和力学性能

采用等离子喷涂方法,在Ｔｉ－６Ａｌ－４Ｖ基体上成功地制备了ＨＡ／Ｔｉ复合涂层,并对复合涂层的微观结构、相组成和力学性能进行了研究．结果表明,ＨＡ和Ｔｉ两相均匀地分布于复合涂层中．ＨＡ／Ｔｉ复合涂层的结合强度明显高于纯 ＨＡ涂层,这主要是由于 ＨＡ／Ｔｉ的复合缓和了涂层与基体之间的热膨胀系数失配．ＨＡ／Ｔｉ复合涂层在模拟体液中浸泡一段时间后,结合强度没有明显降低．ＨＡ／Ｔｉ复合涂层的断裂韧性和硬度均高于 ＨＡ涂层．     

等离子喷涂HA/Ti复合涂层研究 I.结构、组成和力学性能

采用等离子喷涂方法,在Ｔｉ－６Ａｌ－４Ｖ基体上成功地制备了ＨＡ／Ｔｉ复合涂层,并对复合涂层的微观结构,相组成和力学性能进行了研究。结果表明,ＨＡ和Ｔｉ两相均匀地分布于复合涂层中。ＨＡ／Ｔｉ复合涂层的结合强度明显高于纯ＨＡ涂层,这主要是由于ＨＡ／Ｔｉ的复合和了涂层与基体之间的热膨胀系数失配,ＨＡ／Ｔｉ复合涂层在模拟体液中浸泡一段时间后,结合强度没有明显降低,ＨＡ／Ｔｉ复合涂层的断裂韧性和硬度均高于Ｈ     

Analysis of Interfacial Coating Effect on Thermal Stress in Composites

A preliminary model for the analysis of thermo-mechanical behaviour of interfacial coatings on thefibers in unidirectional composites have been developed on the solution of thermo-elastic mechan-ics. Thermal stress would be introduced into the composite during cooling because of the mismatchof thermo-mechanical properties among their components. The low modulus coating can effectivelyreduce the interracial stress caused by different thermal expansion coefficient between fibers and ma-trix, no matter how high or low the expansion coefficients of coatings are in CF/Al and SiC/Ticomposite systems, however, high modulus coating can decrease the interfacial compressive stress,only when the thermal expansion coefficient of coating is lower.     

Identification of the Parameters of Multilayer Coatings According to the Thermoelastic Displacements of the Surface of Heating

With an aim to develop a method for the evaluation of the parameters of multilayer coatings, we study the influence of geometric, elastic, and thermal characteristics of materials of three-layered structures on the normal and tangential thermoelastic displacements of points of the surface of the coating in the process of its local heating by axisymmetric stationary heat flows. The absolute values of displacements are estimated for the intensities of heat flow for which the temperature attained at the center of the spot of heating does not exceed 200°C. It is shown that the order of magnitude of the maximum displacements is sufficient for their recording by the methods of holographic interferometry and shearography.     

WS2软涂层刀具的材料优选及涂层制备

运用有限元软件分析了不同基体材料和过渡层的基体表面WS2软涂层的残余热应力。结果表明弹性模量和热膨胀系数等参数是影响涂层残余热应力大小的主要因素。采用中频磁控溅射、多弧离子镀外加离子束辅助沉积工艺制备了4种WS2软涂层刀具并对其性能进行了测试,分析结果符合有限元计算的结论,发现残余热应力对WS2软涂层刀具的性能产生很大的影响,并发现Zr过渡层能有效促进WS2Ⅱ型织构的生长。     

Determination of the thermal conductivity of paraffin at low temperatures

The authors describe a method of accurately determining the thermal conductivity of insulators with small volume coefficients of thermal expansion. Results are given for an experimental determination of the thermal conductivity of paraffin in the temperature range 83–295°K.     

Inverse problems of material distributions for prescribed apparent fracture toughness in FGM coatings around a circular hole in infinite elastic media

This study is concerned with the inverse problem of calculating material distributions intending to realize prescribed apparent fracture toughness in functionally graded material (FGM) coatings around a circular hole in infinite elastic media. The incompatible eigenstrain induced in the FGM coatings after cooling from the sintering temperature, due to mismatch in the coefficients of thermal expansion, is taken into consideration. An approximation method of determining stress intensity factors is introduced for a crack in the FGM coatings in which the FGM coatings are homogenized simulating the nonhomogeneous material properties by a distribution of equivalent eigenstrain. A radial edge crack emanating from the circular hole in the homogenized coatings is considered for the case of a uniform pressure applied to the surfaces of the hole and the crack. The stress intensity factors determined for the crack in the homogenized coatings represent the approximate values of the stress intensity factors for the same crack in the FGM coatings, and are used in the inverse problem of calculating material distributions in the FGM coatings intending to realize prescribed apparent fracture toughness in the coatings. Numerical results are obtained for a TiC/Al₂O₃ FGM coating, which reveal that the apparent fracture toughness in FGM coatings around a circular hole in infinite elastic media can be controlled within possible limits by choosing an appropriate material distribution profile in the coatings.     

Thermally invariant dielectric coatings for micromirrors

Thermal expansion-induced curvature becomes a major effect in micromirrors as the mirror diameter exceeds 100 microm. Such mirrors are used for optical switching, scanning, and many other applications. By using multilayer coatings instead of a single metal reflector, one can use the mechanical properties of the multilayer to create mirrors with zero curvature across temperature. We demonstrate the fabrication of such thermally invariant mirrors using dielectric coatings. A semianalytic model based on free-plate elastic theory is developed that uses empirical parameters in place of the true thermal expansion coefficients of the coating materials. Micromirrors are demonstrated that maintain their design curvature to within lambda/60 for lambda = 633 nm across an operating range from 21 degrees C to 58 degrees C.