Reporting of traceability and food safety data in the culinary herb and spice chains

Reporting of information is crucial to enable backward and forward tracing of food along the chain, which is of main importance in case of non-compliance with legal obligations on food safety. Thus, food business operators in the European Union (EU) must enable tracing of any foodstuff one step forward and one step back. However, flux of information relevant for traceability and food safety can be a challenge in the supply chains of dried culinary herbs and spices.Results of a survey among herb/spice businesses – either located within the EU or exporting dried herbs/spices to the EU – showed the widespread use of electronic systems for recording and processing of traceability/food safety data. However, automated capture of transaction data and automated read-out/processing of reported data were rare. The survey indicates that besides electronic documents, typed paper documents are often exchanged between businesses. For data delivery along the chain, paper documents filled in by hand are still used – even in the EU or upon import to the EU. The document type as well as the forms varied, particularly in case of incoming herbs/spices. The forms used for reporting by the survey participants or by their suppliers covered mostly individual/company-specific forms. Standardised forms provided by herb/spice associations were rarely shared between these businesses. The extent of reporting of traceability data upon import to the EU and within the EU appears to be sufficient. Some additional traceability data that promote product tracing, such as the country of harvest, were frequently reported. Same was true for information on food safety hazards.     

National seasoning practices and factors affecting the herb and spice consumption habits in Europe

This study aimed to recognize herb and spice consumption habits as well as to explore certain factors having an influence on it in seven (Austria, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Latvia, Slovakia, the Netherlands) member states of the European Union. A self-administered questionnaire survey was conducted in each country, comprising of 1731 European adults regularly preparing food at home. Pepper and paprika, as well as parsley and basil were found to be the most frequently consumed spices and herbs, respectively. Validation of the ‘spice consumption’ model indicated that knowledge regarding health issues of herbs and spices was of high importance, which may have had favourable effects on the consumption habits. In conclusion, this study suggests that emphasising of health issues − directly or as incorporated into gastronomic elements − can be a useful tool for the expansion of herb and spice consumption, as well as globalizing of national cuisines and the consumption of typical national spices and country specific characteristics which can be still identified in Europe.     

Antimicrobial efficacy of a spice ferment in emulsion type sausages and restructured ham

The antimicrobial efficacy of a fermented spice preparation was assessed in emulsion type sausages and restructured hams and compared to that of two commercially-used antimicrobials; sodium lactate and lauric arginate. Restructured hams and emulsion type sausages were formulated with either sodium lactate (15 × 10³ μg/g), lauric arginate (N^α-lauroyl-l-arginine ethyl ester; LAE; 0.2 × 10³ μg/g) or a fermented spice preparation (20 × 10³ μg/g), and effect on microbial growth and sensory properties determined. The spice ferment retarded the growth of Listeria innocua on the surface of emulsion type sausages by about 16 days, while sodium lactate and lauric arginate retarded the growth for 6 and less than 1 days, respectively. On restructured hams, antimicrobial efficacy was lower with growth retardations being 10, 4 and 1 days for the spice ferment, sodium lactate and lauric arginate, respectively. Little activity of all three antimicrobials was found against contamination with Lactobacillus curvatus. No significant deviation in the sensory properties occurred upon addition of antimicrobials to either sausages or hams. Considering that growth of Listeria is one of the key problems in ready to eat meat products, the results are quite promising. Moreover, results suggest that consumers' demands for products without chemical additives may be addressed by exchanging lactate or acetate with fermented spices.     

In vitro antimicrobial activity of less-utilized spice and herb extracts against selected food-borne bacteria

In this study we compared the antimicrobial activities of extracts from four under-utilized spices and herbs including goraka (Garcinia quaesita), galangal (Alpinia galanga), lemon iron bark (Eucalyptus staigerana) and mountain pepper (Tasmannia lanceolata) to the three common spices and herbs pepper (Piper nigrum), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), and oregano (Oreganum vulgare). Different extraction solvents were used (water, ethanol and hexane) and extracts were tested against four food-borne bacteria (Escherichia coli, Salmonella Typhimurium, Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus) using agar disc diffusion and broth dilution assays. Solvent type greatly influenced the antimicrobial activity of the spice and herb extracts except for those of P. nigrum, which had little or no activity. In general the spice and herb extracts with antimicrobial activity were more effective against Gram-positive than Gram-negative bacteria. Extracts from the under-utilized herbs and spices had significant activity. In particular, A. galanga hexane and ethanol extracts and E. staigerana ethanol and water extracts had strong antimicrobial activity against S. aureus and/or L. monocytogenes. Interestingly the minimal inhibitory concentrations determined using the broth dilution method and the diameter of inhibition zones using the disc diffusion assay were not strongly correlated (r² ranged from 0.10 to 0.70) in most extracts, suggesting that choosing just one method for antimicrobial testing may lead to indefinite conclusions. The total phenolic content of two extracts from each spice and herb was assayed to establish any relationship between antimicrobial activity and phenolic compound levels, however this was found to poorly correlated (r² < 0.30). This study has demonstrated that simple extracts of novel under-utilized herbs and spices have potential antimicrobial activity against food-borne bacterial species. Further it is indicated that the antimicrobial activity in some herbs and spices may be due to the presence of substances other than phenolic compounds.     

The microbiological quality of commercial herb and spice preparations used in the formulation of a chicken supreme ready meal and microbial survival following a simulated industrial heating process

The microbiological status of thirty herb and spice preparations used in the manufacture of ready meals was determined. The effect of a simulated manufacturing process with subsequent cold storage was evaluated on spices having highest microbial loads either suspended in water, or added to a ready meal. Total aerobic mesophilic bacteria count indicated that 20% of the spices had >6 log CFU/g. Spore-forming bacteria and thermophiles (2–6 log CFU/g) were detected in 80% of samples. Pseudomonas spp. and Enterobacteriaceae (2–6 log CFU/g) were detected in 33% or 23% of spices, respectively. Molds were detected in 50% of samples (1–3 log CFU/g), while yeasts were detected in two samples only. Bacillus cereus was detected only in samples of marjoram. The simulated manufacturing treatment with subsequent cold storage indicated a degree of bacterial survival with a possible protective effect of the food matrix. Overall, the heat processing steps applied during manufacture of chilled ready meals may not always be sufficient to eliminate the indigenous microflora especially in spices of poor microbiological quality.     

Antimicrobial activity of phenolic compounds of wine against Campylobacter jejuni

Campylobacter jejuni is a food pathogen which causes gastrointestinal conditions with an ever-increasing incidence at a global level. The antimicrobial power of wine and its components has been studied. Wines having 11.5% ethanol significantly reduced the viability of C. jejuni when they were diluted to 25% in water. The microbicidal power of red wine was higher than that of white wine. While pH does not seem to affect the viability of this pathogen, different phenolic compounds have an effect on it when tested at concentrations from 0 to 1000 mg/L. Gallic acid and p-hydroxybenzoic acid reduced the viability of C. jejuni at concentrations as low as 1 mg/L, but quercetin and catechin did not even affect it at concentrations of 1000 mg/L. Methyl gallate, epicatechin, synaptic acid, vanillic acid, and caffeic acid were microbicidal at concentrations starting at 10 mg/L. Tryptophol, ferulic acid, and cumaric acid were effective starting at 100 mg/L. According to this, wine constitutes an adverse environment for the survival of this pathogen. Furthermore, it would be interesting to study the possible use of phenolic compounds in wine as an alternative to the use of antimicrobial growth promoters against these bacteria in broilers.     

Antimicrobial resistance of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus isolated from food handler's hands

The aim of this study was to determine the antimicrobial resistance of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus isolates from food handlers' hands at primary schools in Hulu Langat district, Selangor (Malaysia). Disc diffusion methods were used to examine the antimicrobial resistance of the bacteria by using ten types of antibiotic discs with different concentrations. The results show that the prevalence of S. aureus (65.88–74.12%) was far higher than the prevalence of E. coli (9.41–14.12%). The percentage isolates of E. coli that were resistant to the antibiotics was 85.71% Penicillin and Chloramphenicol, 57.14% Sulfamethoxazole-Trimethoprim, Ampicillin and Trimethoprim, 28.57% Kanamycin and Tetracycline and 14.29% Ciprofloxacin. All of the isolates had shown susceptible to Gentamicin and Nitrofurantoin. For S. aureus, the percentage isolates that were resistant to the antibiotics was 72.30% Ampicillin, 53.38% Penicillin, 4.73% Nitrofurantoin,1.35% Chloramphenicol and Trimethoprim and 0.68% Kanamycin and Tetracycline. None of the isolates had shown resistant to Ciprofloxacin, Sulfamethoxazole-Trimethoprim and Gentamicin. Multidrug resistant Escherichia coli represented a high percentage (85.71%) of the total positive strains revived whereas multidrug resistant S. aureus strains were only 5.41% of the total positive strains. The existence of multidrug resistant bacteria is quite worrying as they may pose serious threat to the patients. Hence, the microbiological quality of food handlers' hands from foodservice operations should be maintained in a good condition to reduce the existence of multidrug resistance bacteria.     

Network and vulnerability analysis of international spice trade

The spice trade network is one of the oldest and substantially vulnerable systems of the agri-food supply chains. Based on statistical analysis of spice paprika (chilli red pepper) and black pepper trade flows within the EU member states, stochastic simulation models have been developed for prognosis of the proliferation of contaminated products between the member states as a function of the source-state of the contaminated products. Results highlight the rapidity of proliferation, and offer a simple, but robust tool for prediction of contamination patterns among states, serving the formation of a targeted defence strategy and policy Traditional geostatistical methods (e.g. Morens’ I of spatial autocorrelation) in most cases are not suitable to predict the geographic distribution of contaminated products among countries, due to complexity and inter-connectedness of the European spice network. The pattern of proliferation of contaminated products between member states was analysed using a dyadic network of relational data, applying additive and multiplicative effects model. Results of analysis prove the importance of long-distance, international trade in distribution of contaminated products.     

Antimicrobial potential and chemical composition of Mentha piperita oil in liquid and vapour phase against food spoiling microorganisms

Antimicrobial potential of Mentha piperita oil in liquid and vapour phase against different bacterial strains (Escherichia coli αDH5, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus), fungal strains (Penicillium digitatum, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Mucor spp, and Fusarium oxysporum) and yeasts (Candida albicans and Sacchromyces cerevisiae) was determined by agar dilution method, well diffusion method and disc volatilization method, respectively. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and Minimum bactericidal and fungicidal concentration (MBC/MFC) of M. piperita oil varied from 1.13 to 2.25 mg/ml and 2.25 to 9 mg/ml for bacterial strains, 1.13 to 2.25 mg/ml and 2.25 to 4.5 mg/ml for fungal strains and 1.13 mg/ml and 2.25 mg/ml for yeasts, respectively. Bacterial inhibition zone due to M. piperita oil (40 μl/well) varied from 13 mm (P. aeruginosa) to 22 mm (B. subtilis). Bacterial inhibition zone due to M. piperita oil (40 μl) vapour varied from 22 mm (P. fluorescens) to 35 mm (B. subtilis) while almost complete growth inhibition occurred in case of fungal strains. In the kill time assays, 100% reduction in viability of C. albicans and B. subtilis was found within 8 h exposure to M. piperita oil vapour. Significant morphological alterations due to the effect of M. piperita oil and oil vapour on B. Subtilis have also been observed by scanning electron microscope.Chemical constituents of the M. piperita essential oil and oil vapour have been identified by gas chromatography (GC), gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and Solid phase micro extraction-gas chromatography mass spectrometry (SPME GC–MS), respectively.     

Antimicrobial activity of lactic acid bacteria against pathogenic and spoilage microorganism isolated from food and their control in wheat bread

The evaluation of antimicrobial activities of Lactobacillus sakei KTU05-6, Pediococcus acidilactici KTU05-7, Pediococcus pentosaceus KTU05-8, KTU05-9 and KTU05-10 strains producing organic acids and bacteriocins like inhibitory substances (BLIS) against undesirable microorganisms in the food industry, were performed using an agar well diffusion assay method. The metabolites of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) inhibited the growth of pathogenic bacteria, belonging to Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Listeria and Escherichia genera in various degrees. The organic acids and BLIS of LAB show fungicidal and fungistatic activities against fungi and yeast such as Fusarium culmorum, Penicillium chrysogenum, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus versicolor, Penicillium expansum, Aspergillus niger, Debaryomyces hansenii and Candida parapsilosis. 20% of P. pentosaceus KTU05-9 sourdough in a bread recipe suppressed the bread ropiness in artificially contaminated bread by Bacillus subtilis spores, until 6 days storage at 23 °C. Moreover P. acidilactici KTU05-7, P. pentosaceus KTU05-8 and KTU05-10 single cell suspension sprayed on the bread surface, inhibited growing of fungi until 8 days of storage in polythene bags. The presence of BLIS and organic acids by tested LAB is an indication that these bacteria can be used widely in the food industry as bio-preservatives due to their broad inhibition spectrum.     

Antimicrobial activity of chitosan,organic acids and nano-sized solubilisates for potential use in smart antimicrobially-active packaging for potential food applications

Antimicrobial activity of low- and medium-molecular weight chitosan and organic acids (Benzoic acid and Sorbic acid and commercially-available nano-sized benzoic- and sorbic-acid solubilisate equivalents) was investigated and compared against commercial mixtures of organic acids used as meat coatings (Articoat DLP-02^® and Sulac-01^®). From the antimicrobials tested, both low molecular weight (LMW) and medium molecular weight (MMW) chitosan exhibited the highest antimicrobial activity against all bacterial cultures tested, with mean MIC values of 0.010 and 0.015% w/v, respectively. The results suggested that the MW of the chitosan used effected antimicrobial activity of the chitosan. Nano-sized solubilisates of benzoic acid and sorbic acid had significantly (P < 0.05) higher antimicrobial properties than their non-nano equivalents. The results found in this study open opportunities for the nano-sized solubilisates, derived from food compatible sources, to be used in smart and active antimicrobial packaging applications, as less of the antimicrobial substances in question is required to deliver the same antimicrobial effect.     

Food standards, chemicals in food and food trade

Food standards, chemicals in food and food trade were the three related topics considered by the international conference organized jointly by the World Health Organisation (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The conference, held in the FAO headquarters in Rome from 18–27 March 1991, brought together delegations from over 70 countries to discuss the issues raised and to provide guidance for the sponsoring organizations as to the direction of their future work. The conference was of major importance for the organizers and, through them, the Codex Alimentarius Commision (CAC). However, it is important to appreciate that the conference took no actual decisions about future work. It was an advisory meeting and so any decisions will be taken by other bodies after considering the recommendations made.     

Knowledge of food safety and food handling practices amongst food handlers in the Republic of Ireland

Food safety concerns have existed for a long time, as millions of people across the globe suffer from food borne disease every year. Contamination of food owing to limited knowledge of food safety practices primarily increases the risk of food borne illnesses. In the present study, quantitative research was carried out to gauge the level of food safety knowledge amongst people living in Ireland. A total of 1069 participants from all over the Republic of Ireland contributed to the survey (of which 821 were included in this research). Results showed that the residents of Ireland overall had an average level on knowledge of food safety practices (67.0% passing rate). They had an average level of knowledge in food storage (52.8% passing rate), usage and maintenance of the kitchen facilities (59.0% passing rate), and personal hygiene (61.0% passing rate). Conversely, they had a critically low level of knowledge in food handling (10.8% passing rate) and food poisoning (20.1% passing rate). The results of the present study also showed that, the level of knowledge of food safety practices varies amongst the residents based upon their gender, age, place of residence, education level, and marital status, while no significant difference in the knowledge level was observed based upon their per capita income. The study thus, highlights that there is scope for improvement for the residents to advance their knowledge of food safety practices. Therefore, it can be recommended that researchers, educators, food safety communicators, and the media can engage in educating the population, to help the residents advance their food safety knowledge to safer food practices.     

A review on food safety and food hygiene studies in Ghana

Food safety and hygiene in Ghana was studied using desk top literature review. Food research was highly concentrated in the capital city of the country and most research focus were on commercial food operations specifically street foods and microbiological safety with limited information from institutional catering and other forms of food hazards. The media currently serves as the main source for reporting of food borne diseases. Food establishments and other sources contributing to food borne diseases included restaurants, food joints, food vendors, schools and individual homes. Limited use of prerequisites measures and food safety management systems was identified. Recommendations on regulating the General Hygiene Principles, implementation of HACCP to strengthen the food sector, regular food safety and hygiene workshops and training for food handlers that commensurate with their roles were made. Government support for SMEs and food handler's health screening were made.     

Comparison of analytical methods for aflatoxin determination in commercial chilli spice preparations and subsequent development of an improved method

A method for analysis of aflatoxins in commercial chilli spice preparations was developed. Initial work concentrated on identification of optimal recovery and binding of aflatoxins to immunoaffinity columns prior to analysis. An 80:20 methanol–water (%, v/v) extraction mixture gave the highest recovery (79–87%). Investigation of the efficiency of commercial immunoaffinity columns for clean-up i.e. binding of aflatoxins, indicated that the Vicam column performed better than R-Biopharm immunoaffinity column. A comparison of analytical methods was then undertaken using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) using either, post-column derivatisation by iodine in a reaction coil, or bromine derivatisation in a Kobra cell. ELISA had poor precision and a positive bias. Both HPLC methods performed well, however an increased sensitivity and recovery of aflatoxin detection was found for the Kobra cell compared with the iodine derivatisation method.     

The evaluation of food hygiene knowledge,attitudes, and practices of food handlers’ in food businesses in Turkey

The purpose of this study was to evaluate knowledge, attitudes, and practices concerning food safety issues among food handlers in Turkey, conducting face to face interview and administrating questionnaire. Of the 764 food handlers who responded, 9.6% were involved in touching or distributing unwrapped foods routinely and use protective gloves during their working activity. A majority of participants (47.8%) had not taken a basic food safety training. The mean food safety knowledge scores was 43.4 ± 16.3. The study demonstrated that food handlers in Turkish food businesses often have lack of knowledge regarding the basic food hygiene (critical temperatures of hot or cold ready-to-eat foods, acceptable refrigerator temperature ranges, and cross-contamination etc.). There is a immediate need for education and increasing awareness among food handlers regarding safe food handling practices.     

Evaluation of basic knowledge on food safety and food handling practices amongst migrant food handlers in Peninsular Malaysia

This study was aimed to measure the basic knowledge on food safety and food handling practices among migrant food handlers as these information is scarce in Malaysia. A cross-sectional study was conducted face-to-face amongst 383 migrant food handlers from three major cities in Peninsular Malaysia through questionnaire. Socio-demographic information of all respondents was collected. Questions on food safety knowledge (i.e. food cleanliness and hygiene, symptom of foodborne illnesses and foodborne pathogens) and food handling practices were assessed. The compiled data were analyzed by using the Statistical Packages for Social Science (SPSS) 16.0. Overall, migrant food handlers had poor level of knowledge on food safety with an average food handling practice. Significant effects were observed between respondents’ food safety knowledge and socio-demography (country of origin and educational level) and two factors namely; respondents’ nationality and attendance at food training programs showed significant associations with their food handling practices. Multiple logistic regression analyses revealed that attendance at food training programs was a significant and independent predictor of the respondent’s food handling practice. The study’s findings highlighted issues with regards to the extent of knowledge acquisition on food safety and hygiene by migrant food handlers. Therefore, this warrants improvements not only in the better delivery methods of training modules but also tight enforcement of attendance at the programs by the respective authorities.     

The potential of some spice essential oils in the control of A. parasiticus CFR 223 and aflatoxin production

Essential oils of sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum), cassia (Cinnamomum cassia), coriander (Coriandrum sativum) and bay leaf (Laurus nobilis) at 1–5% (v/v) concentration in palm kernel broth inoculated with spore suspension (10⁶/ml) of Aspergillus parasiticus CFR 223 were evaluated for their potential in the control of aflatoxigenic fungus A. parasiticus CFR 223 and aflatoxin production. Healthy sorghum grains (120/treatment) immersed in the oils and distributed in three petri dishes with wet cotton wool were also inoculated with spore suspension (10⁶/ml) of A. parasiticus CFR 223 and assayed for grain protection. Sweet basil oil at optimal protective dosage of 5% (v/v) was fungistatic on A. parasiticus CFR 223 and aflatoxins produced in vitro and on fungal development on sorghum grains (P ⩽ 0.05) with a residual effect that lasted for 32 days. In contrast, oils of cassia and bay leaf stimulated the mycelia growth of the fungus in vitro but reduced the aflatoxin concentration (B₁ + G₁) of the fungus by 97.92% and 55.21% respectively, while coriander oil did not have any effect on both the mycelia growth and aflatoxin content of the fungus. The combination of cassia and sweet basil oils at half their optimal protective dosages (2.5% v/v) completely inhibited the growth of the fungus. The feasibility of implementing the results of this study to control aflatoxins was examined by the addition of whole and ground dry basil leaves at 5% and 10% (w/w), respectively, to 10 g sorghum, groundnut, maize and melon seed after 35 days storage period. It was found that the addition of whole and ground basil leaves markedly reduced aflatoxin contamination; however, 10% (w/w) of whole leaves was more effective as the reduction in aflatoxin was between 89.05% and 91%.The findings showed that aflatoxins can be controlled by co-storing whole sweet basil leaves with aflatoxin infected foods. The economic value of the study lies in the simplified technique for control of aflatoxin contamination in agricultural products and the benefits derivable from the use of local resources.     

Assessment of food allergen management in small food facilities

In terms of public health, food allergen management (FAM) is one of the major areas of food safety management, required by standardised food safety management systems (FSMSs). This study involved performing an evaluation of the scope of application of FAM and identification of non-conformity areas in 24 small food production facilities where FSMSs are implemented. Conformity with the 41 criteria was evaluated by the semi-structured interview method with direct on-site observation. The percentile Conformance Index (CI) and the relative Conformance Index (CI_REL) were established, calculated by the relativisation methods (i.e. evaluation and metrisation), applied in quality engineering. The highest level of non-conformities in the 7 groups of criteria established in the form of a questionnaire was found in Cleaning (CI 29.6–47.2%, CI_REL 0.03–0.32), Transport & Storage (CI 30.6–54.2%, CI_REL 0.05–0.69) and Hazard Awareness (CI 27.8–59.3%, CI_REL 0–0.52). Factors which make it difficult to implement FAM included access to the validated methods of assessment of cleaning effectiveness in removing specific allergens, as well as good practices in separation of allergenic and non-allergenic materials during transport and storage, and personnel training in allergen control. These findings show clearly that implementation and certification of standardised FSMSs is a guarantee of implementation of FAM on a higher level of conformity with the evaluation criteria compared to those facilities which apply only the Codex HACCP principles. The conformity indexes CI and CI_REL proposed in this paper can be applied not only to determine the areas of non-conformity for FAM, but they can also be used to characterise and monitor FAM-related elements of FSMSs as part of self-evaluation and continuous improvement.     

Quality and food safety issues revealed in certified food companies in three Western Balkans countries

Certification of quality and food safety management system is increasing, with various business drivers that demand third party audits. A survey was undertaken where audit reports and revealed findings (nonconformities and/or improvement opportunities) were analyzed from 123 quality and/or food safety audits performed in 60 food companies. The results showed that QMS audits revealed most of the findings in the management process (21.8%), followed by control (14.5%). Findings related to documentation and control of records increase as the system evolves. Food safety audits showed that the majority of findings are related to managing food safety issues (17.5%) and various aspects of food safety control (15.5%). Further analysis showed that the majority of findings (59.6%) are related to prerequisite programs including GHP requirements. These audits generated twice as much nonconformities than quality management system audits. The survey recognized that in the sampled companies, managing quality and food safety as well as control of quality and food safety represent a problem which should be addressed by most of the companies.