The development of a code of ethics for Canadian psychologists.

Over the past 5 yrs, the Canadian Psychological Association has been in the process of developing a new code of ethics for Canadian psychologists. Reasons for this effort are outlined, and the previously used American Psychological Association code is examined in terms of 4 main purposes of ethics codes: to help establish a group as a profession; to act as a support and guide to individual professionals; to help meet the responsibilities of being a profession; and to provide a statement of moral principle that helps the individual professional resolve ethical dilemmas. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethics: Code value and application.

Describes reasons for the Canadian Psychological Association's (1986) development of a code of ethics for Canadian psychologists and reports the application of the code by the present author in 4 cases. The need for such a basis in ethical decision-making is emphasized. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nonsexual posttherapy relationships: A conceptual framework to assess ethical risks.

Psychologists sometimes enter into nonsexual posttherapy relationships with former clients. These relationships may occur for a host of reasons, and psychologists have different views regarding the ethicality of these relationships. The American Psychological Association ethics code provides little specific guidance. This article proposes a collaborative and practical model to assess the ethical risks of nonsexual posttherapy relationships that is grounded in normative ethical principles and is drawn from literature about the therapeutic process and social role theory. The role of virtue ethics is discussed as a basis for developing character traits that help psychologists make difficult ethical decisions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The new CPA Code of Ethics for Canadian psychologists: An education and training perspective.

Examines the value of the Canadian Psychological Association's (CPA [1986]) Code of Ethics as a tool for instruction in ethics and in ethical decision making. It is suggested that the code's principles of respect for the dignity of persons, responsible caring, integrity in relationships, and responsibility to society provide guidelines for evaluating ethical dilemmas. The code also provides an opportunity to examine hypothetical situations in terms of these principles, allowing psychologists to consider their ethical decision-making processes. The author's (1987) previous experiences in discussing ethical dilemmas developed by the CPA's Ethics Committee in a classroom setting are summarized. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Voices from beyond: Comment from other countries: Introduction.

The first "made-in-Canada" code for psychologists was adopted in 1986, 34 years after the American Psychological Association adopted its first code. In the ensuing years Canadian psychologists tested the viability of applying the Code to various areas of psychological activity. The results were generally positive, especially regarding the ethical principles, the ethical decision making process and the usefulness of the Code in teaching. What we had not anticipated was the international attention that the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists would receive. It seems important to know what use is being made of the Canadian Code outside of Canada, and what aspects of the Code seem most valuable to others. For this special issue, several psychologists beyond Canada's borders were asked to comment on the Canadian Code. We are happy to present the voices of the six contributors who responded to our request. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The code of ethics of the Canadian Psychological Association and the Canadian Medical Association: Ethical orientation and functional grammar analysis.

The Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists has been the subject of several recent investigations. This work has focused, for example, on the validity of its hierarchical organization of ethical principles. In the present research, we subjected the code to both a content and a functional grammar analysis. Our content analysis was aimed at determining the theoretical ethical orientation (deontological, teleological or caring) of each statement in the document, while the functional grammar analysis provided information about implicit messages embedded within the code. We contrasted the results of our analysis with those of previous work on the code of ethics adopted by the Canadian Medical Association (CMA). We concluded that, compared to CMA's code, the Canadian Psychological Association's document has greater educational value, is less authoritarian, provides a clear rationale for ethical behavior, and is more empowering to the decision-maker. We argue that the results of our functional grammar and content analyses have implications for future attempts to improve ethics codes for psychology and other professions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethical issues and cases in the practice of personnel psychology.

We explore ethical concerns in personnel psychology. We review the relationship of ethics to changes in the dominant views in the philosophy of science, especially the movement from a logical positivist view of ethics to a normative one. We highlight Kantian ethics as the integrating principle relating to five seemingly disparate ethical principles of the American Psychological Association (APA). These five ethical principles are presented in the context of five ethics cases. In addition to the applicability of the APA ethical code, the need for personnel psychologists to be more attentive to their ethical responsibilities as psychologists is discussed, along with the need to raise ethical consciousness among all personnel psychologists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Introduction to special issue.

The purpose of this Special Issue of Canadian Psychology is to celebrate the significant role the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists has played since its first adoption by the Canadian Psychological Association in 1986, 25 years ago. Twelve articles, two in French, are included. The articles describe the process of the Code's continuing evolution, its applicability in the different legal framework of Quebec, investigations into the Code, and its application to old and new ethical issues related to research, teaching, and practice (e.g., the development of research ethics in Canada, the use of vignettes in ethics teaching, mandatory self-disclosure by students, rural psychology, the use of technology, and humanitarian work). The final article provides a series of commentaries by psychologists from other countries regarding the Code and its international impact. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A Canadian perspective on using vignettes to teach ethics in psychology.

Vignettes depicting ethical dilemmas are used widely in teaching and learning professional ethics. Such an approach can facilitate learning by allowing opportunities to work through ethical dilemmas using practical, realistic, and complex material that enables participants to: engage in discussion; explore applicable ethical principles; and ideally, to achieve a deeper level of ethical understanding. Despite their widespread use, little research has been conducted on how to maximise the benefits of using ethical dilemmas, nor on the most ethically appropriate ways of presenting scenarios derived, at least in part, from actual occurrences. In this article, we endeavour to contextualise the use of vignettes within the framework provided by the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists, Third Edition (Canadian Psychological Association, 2000) and to use the principles and standards therein to suggest guidelines for the ethical creation and use of vignettes. We begin by reviewing the literature on the use of ethical dilemmas in teaching and learning ethics, including a discussion of the benefits to be gained from using vignettes as one component of a comprehensive approach to ethics education. This is followed by discussion of ethical considerations relevant to the creation and use of vignettes of ethical dilemmas. We conclude with a series of recommendations informed by the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists to guide psychologists in using such illustrative material in an ethically appropriate manner. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The ethics of psychology as a business: What is a fair return?

Addresses the ethical issues associated with establishing a fee structure in private practice based on current trends in Canadian psychology and the existing ethical codes and standards for Canadian psychologists. A number of forces impacting on the delivery and nature of psychological service in Canada are reviewed followed by a critique of relevant codes and standards. Recommendations for establishing a fee structure in private practice are provided based on the critique, alternative ethical codes, and existing literature. It is suggested that when economic necessity forces Canadian psychologists to turn to private practice as their primary source of income, potential conflict between self interest and public interest may arise. Exploration of this conflict raises many unanswered questions regarding the combination of business ethics with the ethics of psychology. To answer these questions and help resolve potential ethical conflicts, further examination and discussion amongst psychologists and their professional associations is recommended. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethical dilemmas and U.S. Air Force clinical psychologists: A survey.

Although psychologists work in widely varying settings, all encounter ethical dilemmas. Those who are also officers in the U.S. Air Force have the double burden of upholding the ethics code of psychologists while also supporting the mission of the Air Force. Does this create unique ethical dilemmas? To address this issue, the authors sent active-duty Air Force psychologists a questionnaire asking them to describe recent ethical conflicts. These conflicts are discussed as they relate to the "Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct" (American Psychological Association, 1992) and in comparison with civilian practice. Results suggest a broad range of concerns but center on those related to perceived conflicts between the Air Force mission and the ethical demands of psychologists. Recommendations for dealing with ethical conflicts at the organizational level are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relative importance of the ethical principles adopted by the American Psychological Association.

When two or more ethical principles are in conflict with one another, decision-makers are typically left to determine which of the two should be given most weight. Nonetheless, in the code of ethics adopted by the Canadian Psychological Association (CPA), principles are ranked in order of importance. This provides decision-makers with guidance in situations of conflict between ethical principles. In contrast to CPA's code of ethics, other professional codes do not provide such guidance. In a previous paper, we provided a philosophical rationale for a ranking of the ethical principles adopted by the American Psychological Association (APA) in order to help guide decision-making. In the present study, we investigated whether APA members collectively believe that some ethical principles are more important than others, and whether their views about the relative importance of ethical principles are consistent with the order (ranking) outlined in the CPA code. The results suggest that although APA members view all principles of their code as being important, they also view certain principles as carrying more weight. The implications of the findings for ethical decision-making are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A critical history of CPA's various code of ethics for psychologists (1939–1986).

States that codes of ethics are historical products of the professionalization process; the form and content of codes of ethics develop within the specific historical context of the professionalization process of the occupational group for which they are written. During the 1950s and 1960s, the Canadian Psychological Association's (CPA) decisions regarding adoption of a code of ethics were centered on 2 major professionalization needs; namely, to secure a market niche for "psychologists" as this was defined by CPA, and to sustain this image as the basis for continuing funding for related psychological research. Different historical factors resulted in the decision by CPA, in the 1970s, to produce a made-in-Canada code of ethics. These were (a) the need of CPA to produce a document of professional self-regulation that recognized problems faced by psychological practitioners employed within various organizational structures, and (b) organizational problems of the CPA related to disciplinary unity and achievement of a national leadership role. The results of this critical historical analysis confirm the importance of codes of professional ethics as strategies of professionalization as hypothesized by J. Louw in 1990. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The foundation and application of ethical principles in rehabilitation psychology.

Reviews the basic principles from which ethical thought and decision making in health care evolved in terms of autonomy, justice, beneficence and nonmalfeasance, and care. The interface between American Psychological Association (APA) ethics code and general bioethics principles is presented. A discussion of the applications of these principles to rehabilitation and the unique roles of psychologists in ethical decision making is provided. Training issues and the development of values for which ethics training provides a foundation are highlighted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The interaction between ethics and the law: The ongoing refinement of ethical standards for psychologists in Canada.

Discusses the relationship between Canadian law and ethics, starting with a review of the options available for controlling the conduct of psychologists. The authors then demonstrate how the law influences the development and implementation of ethical standards by both deriving the principles of professional ethics and by reshaping the parameters of conduct by psychologists. The authors show that acting ethically generally leads to acting legally, an vice versa. A review of recent Canadian cases in which the decisions of provincial disciplinary decisions for psychologists were considered demonstrate that, for the most part, courts uphold decisions by licensing boards, particularly those that have employed fair procedures that comport to the principles of natural justice. Finally, the authors point to the continued need for systematically monitoring legislation and legal decisions to determine their influence on our ethical principles, and note that there is a role for provincial and national psychology bodies to lobby legislators and to intervene in cases when matters are being considered that affect the ethical conduct of psychologists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A neurocognitive model of the ethical decision-making process: Implications for study and practice.

The field of business ethics is entrenched in a cognitive approach that portrays the ethical decision-making process as a completely deliberate and reasoned exercise. In light of growing concerns about the veracity of this approach, I build upon current knowledge of how the brain functions to present a neurocognitive model of ethical decision making. The model suggests that ethical decision making involves 2 interrelated yet functionally distinct cycles, a reflexive pattern matching cycle and a higher order conscious reasoning cycle, and thereby describes not only reasoned analysis, but also the intuitive and retrospective aspects of ethical decision making. The model sparks research in new areas, holds significant implications for the study of ethical decision making, and provides suggestions for improving ethical behavior in organizations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emerging areas of ethical concern.

Reviews the development of the ethical standards of psychologists (see American Psychological Association 38:2), and considers whether "there is a significant gap between the requirements of practitioners and the guidelines" provided in this code of ethics. 3 questionnaire surveys of the 1969 membership of the American Psychological Association concerning (1) community psychology, (2) psychotherapy, and (3) research with human Ss are examined. Regarding ethics education, it is suggested that ethics be included as part of a more general course in professional problems. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethical dilemmas encountered by members of the American Psychological Association: A national survey.

A random sample of 1,319 members of the American Psychological Association (APA) were asked to describe incidents that they found ethically challenging or troubling. Responses from 679 psychologists described 703 incidents in 23 categories. This process of gathering critical incidents from the general membership, pioneered by those who developed APA's original code of ethics, may be useful in considering possible revisions of the code and preserving APA's unique approach to identifying ethical principles that address realistically the emerging dilemmas that the diverse membership confronts in the day-to-day work of psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Ethics in psychology: Professional standards and cases.

Reviews the book, Ethics in psychology: Professional standards and cases by Patricia Keith-Spiegel and Gerald P. Koocher (see record 1985-97634-000). This well written and interesting book offers comprehensive coverage of how the American Psychological Association (APA) Ethical Principles of Psychologists (1981) apply in any setting where psychologists are involved. This book should be of special interest to Canadians who are interested in the new Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) Code of Ethics. The CPA Code organized the areas of concern covered by the APA code, plus new and emerging issues, under an umbrella of four general principles and many associated standards of conduct. Both the book and the CPA Code attempt to raise the level of consciousness about ethical issues and ethical decision-making. The result? They complement each other and together provide a useful combination of philosophy, standards, and concrete examples of unethical or questionable behaviour by a psychologist. All who read this book will become aware of the complexity associated with ethics in the practice of psychology. The authors are to be congratulated on providing a scholarly work, long needed by the public and psychologists alike. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contributions of Canadian community psychology.

The contributions of Canadian community psychologists to ethics, theory, methodology, research, and practise are highlighted in this article. Important debates about ethical issues in psychological research and practise have been advanced by Canadian community psychologists. Canadian community psychologists have also introduced theoretical perspectives (e.g., cognitive community psychology) that have provided an impetus for research and practise, and they have broadened the focus of research in community settings with contributions to participatory action research, program evaluation, and qualitative methods. A variety of substantive contributions have been made to the research literature, especially in the areas of community mental health, prevention, and social inclusion. Finally, Canadian community psychologists have contributed to practise in terms of policy, programs, and social interventions. The article concludes with a discussion of future potential areas of contribution for Canadian community psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)