Turnover intention and emotional exhaustion "at the top": Adapting the job demands-resources model to leaders of addiction treatment organizations.

Compared with the large literature on subordinate employees, there are few studies of emotional exhaustion and turnover intention for organizational leaders. There is little research that has extended the job demands-resources (JD-R) model of emotional exhaustion to leaders. In this study, the authors adapted the JD-R framework to analyze data collected from a sample of 410 leaders of addiction treatment organizations. The authors considered whether two job demands (performance demands and centralization) and two job resources (innovation in decision making and long-range strategic planning) were associated with emotional exhaustion and turnover intention. The authors also examined whether emotional exhaustion fully or partially mediated the associations between the job-related measures and turnover intention. The results supported the partially mediated model. Both job demands were positively associated with emotional exhaustion, and the association for long-range strategic planning was negative. Emotional exhaustion was positively associated with turnover intention. Centralization and innovation in decision making were also directly associated with turnover intention. Future research should continue to examine this theoretical framework among leaders of other types of organizations using more refined measures of demands and resources. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality, work characteristics and employee well-being: A longitudinal analysis of additive and moderating effects.

This study tested the longitudinal influence of personality (measured by the characteristics growth need strength, negative affectivity [NA], and upward striving) on 3 psychological outcomes (intrinsic work motivation, emotional exhaustion, and turnover intention), using a pattern of specific relationships between work characteristics and these outcomes as a framework. The study hypotheses were tested in a multioccupational sample consisting of bank employees and teachers, using a 2-wave panel design with a 1-year time interval and structural equation modeling. NA had a cross-lagged direct and additive relationship with emotional exhaustion and also moderated the relationship between Time 1 workload and Time 2 emotional exhaustion. The authors concluded that NA may have multiple effects on emotional exhaustion that persist over time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contextualizing emotional exhaustion and positive emotional display: The signaling effects of supervisors’ emotional exhaustion and service climate.

In this study, we investigated how supervisors’ emotional exhaustion and service climate jointly influence the relationship between subordinates’ emotional exhaustion and their display of positive emotions at work. Using data from frontline sales employees and their immediate supervisors in a fashion retailer, we hypothesized and found that under the condition of a less positive service climate, subordinates’ emotional exhaustion was more negatively related to their positive emotional display when supervisors’ emotional exhaustion was higher rather than lower; this interaction effect of subordinates’ and supervisors’ emotional exhaustion was not significant in a more positive service climate. These results suggest that service climate and supervisors’ emotional exhaustion provide emotionally exhausted employees with important information cues about the possible availability of compensatory resources they need to uphold their efforts to display service-focused emotions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Generalization of experimentally reinforced conformity.

The study investigated whether experimentally reinforced conformity, using objective stimuli, would generalize to subjective stimuli. Using the Crutchfield apparatus, E informed Ss that the false group consensus was correct on objective stimuli. Enhanced conformity to group pressure was exhibited on objective stimuli receiving such authoritative confirmation of the group. Results further showed that this experimentally reinforced conformity generalized to other objective and subjective material on which feedback was not given. An attempt to produce greater generalization by creating, through instructions, high psychological similarity among stimuli proved inconclusive. Females showed greater generalization of conformity than males. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social networks, personal values, and creativity: Evidence for curvilinear and interaction effects.

Taking an interactional perspective on creativity, the authors examined the influence of social networks and conformity value on employees’ creativity. They theorized and found a curvilinear relationship between number of weak ties and creativity such that employees exhibited greater creativity when their number of weak ties was at intermediate levels rather than at lower or higher levels. In addition, employees’ conformity value moderated the curvilinear relationship between number of weak ties and creativity such that employees exhibited greater creativity at intermediate levels of number of weak ties when conformity was low than when it was high. A proper match between personal values and network ties is critical for understanding creativity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between clients’ conformity to masculine norms and their perceptions of helpful therapist actions.

T. J. G. Tracey et al.’s (2003) common factors model derived from therapists and psychotherapy researchers has provided a parsimonious structure to inform research and practice. Accordingly, the current authors used the 14 common factor categories identified in Tracey et al.’s model as a guide to code clients’ perceptions of helpful therapist actions (e.g., intervention, way of being) in short-term psychotherapy. Next, they conducted a cluster analysis to establish meaningful subgroups of clients based on clients’ perceptions of helpful therapist actions. Finally, they explored if clients in these subgroups differed in their report of conformity to masculine norms. Clients (N = 161) from a university counseling center were recruited for the current study. Results revealed 3 clusters of clients based on their perceptions of helpful therapist actions: Insight (44%), Relationship (30%), and Information (26%). In contrast, Tracey et al. found 3 clusters: Bond (which includes Insight and Relationship), Information, and Structure of therapy (not found in the current study). Clients in the Insight and Relationship clusters reported more conformity to masculine norms as compared with clients in the Information cluster. There were no sex differences across clusters. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotional exhaustion as a predictor of job performance and voluntary turnover.

Recent research suggests that a better understanding of emotional exhaustion requires the development of new theoretical perspectives. To that end, with the conservation of resources model (COR) as the theoretical framework, the present 1-year longitudinal study was undertaken. Composed of 52 social welfare workers, this research examined the relationship of emotional exhaustion to job satisfaction, voluntary turnover, and job performance. Positive affectivity (PA) and negative affectivity (NA) were used as control variables. Whereas emotional exhaustion was unrelated to job satisfaction, it was associated with both performance and subsequent turnover. In addition, the relationship between emotional exhaustion and performance and also between emotional exhaustion and turnover remained significant above and beyond the effects of PA and NA. Future research directions and implications of the findings are introduced. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Extending our understanding of burnout: Test of an integrated model in nonservice occupations.

C. L. Cordes and T. M. Dougherty (1993) provided a conceptual framework of job burnout in nonservice organizations. This study sought to determine the "fit" of that theoretical model within nonservice occupations. LISREL VIII was used to test this model on 165 participants, and the overall model fit the data well. Supervisory support moderated the relationships between the role conflict, role ambiguity, and quantitative role overload stressors and emotional exhaustion and between emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. Unexpectedly, role conflict, role ambiguity, and quantitative role overload had a positive impact on emotional exhaustion when supervisory support was high. As expected, participation had a negative association with depersonalization. Employees experiencing emotional exhaustion were more likely to feel nervous or tense at work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Passionately committed psychotherapists: A qualitative study of their experience.

Twelve peer-nominated psychotherapists were interviewed to provide a rich understanding of their sustained high levels of work commitment. Common themes included creating boundaries between professional and nonprofessional life, using leisure activities to provide relief, turning obstacles into challenges, finding diverse activities to provide freshness and energy, continually seeking feedback and supervision, taking on social responsibilities, and experiencing a strong sense of spirituality. Whereas participants did not differ significantly from norm groups on measures of work salience, job satisfaction, emotional exhaustion, and depersonalization, they reported high levels of personal accomplishment and scored in the 99th percentile on openness to experience. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Endurance performance in humans: the effect of a dopamine precursor or a specific serotonin (5-HT2A/2C) antagonist

In this study we examined the effect of a dopamine (DA) precursor (L-DOPA) or a serotonin (5-HT) antagonist (Ritanserin) on time to exhaustion. The study had a double-blind, randomised, placebo controlled and cross-over design. Seven moderately trained men performed three tests to exhaustion at 65% Wattmax. Each test was separated by two weeks to allow washout of the drugs (dose: 4 mg/kg Sinemet, and 0.3 mg/kg Ritanserin). Blood lactate, hematocrit, glucose, ammonia, free fatty acids (FFA), growth hormone (GH) and catecholamines were determined before and after exercise. Time to exhaustion did not differ between the three trials. Most of the parameters measured in this study responded as predicted during cycling to exhaustion in man. DA agonism significantly increased heart rate, lactate, and plasma DA values at rest, while other parameters such as FFA, lactate, plasma noradrenaline (NA) and adrenaline (A), and plasma GH showed the highest absolute levels at exhaustion. Ritanserin did not influence basal glucose and heart rate at rest, but this group showed a much lower increase in plasma catecholamine levels. We conclude that under the present conditions, neither a metabolic precursor of DA nor a specific centrally acting 5-HT2A/2C antagonist, when given in two single doses 24 h and immediately before the experiments, influences the time to exhaustion on a bicycle trial at 65% Wattmax.     

Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) during cycling exercises at constant power output

The purpose of the present investigation was to study the overall rating of perceived exertion (RPEov) according to the 6-20 scale proposed by Borg (1970) and muscular RPE (RPEmu) in exercises at constant load. The relationship between RPE and heart rate for three different loads was studied during exhausting exercises in 10 participants. Whether the drift of RPE during a 20 min exercise at constant load could be an index of the endurance time during long-lasting exercises at constant load was also investigated. At 1-week intervals, the participants performed cycling exercises up to exhaustion at 60, 73, and 86% maximal aerobic power (MAP) measured during an incremental test. Heart rate, RPEov, RPEmu and exhaustion time (tlim) were measured. The upward shift of the HRmax-RPE regressions was significant between 86, 73 and 60% MAP (p < 0.001) for RPEov and RPEmu. This result suggests that the equation HR = 10 x RPE proposed by Borg (1973) for incremental exercise is not valid for long-lasting exercise at constant load until exhaustion because the heart rate corresponding to a given RPE depends on load and time. Mean RPE increased linearly with time up to exhaustion. Unexpectedly, the relationships between RPEmu or RPEov and percentage of exhaustion time were similar for exercises at 60 and 73% MAP although the exhaustion times were very different (79.40 +/- 30.64 min versus 36.19 +/- 15.99 min, respectively) (p < 0.001). Consequently, it is likely that RPE was a subjective estimation of the hardness of exercise rather than the intensity of exercise. The RPE pattern at the beginning of long-lasting exercises at constant load (60 and 73% MAP) cannot be considered as a sensitive predictor of the point of self-imposed exhaustion for individuals. Indeed, the errors in the estimation of exhaustion time from extrapolation of RPE at the beginning of exercise were very large. Moreover, at 60% MAP, a steady-state in RPE was observed during 20 min in five subjects whose tlim were not longer than tlim of the other subjects. In addition, the data of the present study indicate that RPEmu could be more useful than RPEov in cycling.     

The role of personal resources in the job demands-resources model.

This study examined the role of three personal resources (self-efficacy, organizational-based self-esteem, and optimism) in the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model. The authors hypothesized that personal resources (1) moderate the relationship between job demands and exhaustion, (2) mediate the relationship between job resources and work engagement, and (3) relate to how employees perceive their work environment and well-being. Hypotheses were tested among 714 Dutch employees. Results showed that personal resources did not offset the relationship between job demands and exhaustion. Instead, personal resources mediated the relationship between job resources and engagement/exhaustion and influenced the perception of job resources. The implications of these findings for the JD-R model are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The moderating effect of work-linked couple relationships and work–family integration on the spouse instrumental support-emotional exhaustion relationship.

Based on boundary theory and conservation of resources theory, we argue that employees with a spouse in the same occupation or workplace (referred to as work-linked couples) enhance the effectiveness of spousal instrumental support in reducing emotional exhaustion. In the first study of nurses (n = 103), we found that work-linked couples have more highly integrated work and family roles than participants whose spouses did not share an occupation or workplace. In a second study of working adults (n = 484), we found that work-linked couples have a stronger relationship between spouse instrumental support and the reduction of emotional exhaustion; this moderated relationship was mediated by their work–family integration. We discuss the implications of these findings for the study of work and family roles, social support, and emotional exhaustion, and provide suggestions for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How does service workers’ behavior affect their health? Service climate as a moderator in the service behavior–health relationships.

To address the question of whether providing high-quality service deteriorates or benefits workers’ health, a contingency model was tested that focused on service climate as a moderator. This interacts with service behavior to affect workers’ perceptions of emotional exhaustion, hence their physical and mental health. Findings of this study with 328 nurses from 66 nursing units indicated that congruent conditions of service climate and behaviors benefited workers’ health, whereas incongruent conditions affected it adversely. The findings are discussed in light of stress, and emotion–work perspectives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predictive validity of a multidisciplinary model of reemployment success.

The authors propose a multidisciplinary model of the predictors of reemployment and test its predictive validity for explaining reemployment success. Predictor variables from the fields of economics, sociology, and psychology are incorporated into the model. Reemployment success is conceptualized as a construct consisting of unemployment insurance exhaustion and reemployment speed, and for reemployed persons, job improvement, job-organization fit, and intention to leave the new job. Direct, mediated, and moderated relationships were hypothesized and tested, clarifying the role of the variables in the reemployment process and outcome. The authors' proposal and examination of a multidisciplinary model of reemployment success contributes to a literature that has not tended to adequately cross disciplinary boundaries. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral interventions to increase HPV vaccination acceptability among mothers of young girls.

Objective: To determine the most effective ways to present human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine risk and benefit information to mothers in Hispanic, African American, and White communities, to increase mothers’ intentions to vaccinate their daughters against HPV. Design: The study used a 3 × 2 between-subjects factorial design, involving 3 different risk presentation formats (graphical HPV statistics, nongraphical HPV statistics, or no-statistics control) and the presence or absence of rhetorical questions (RQ). Data were collected from a national sample of 471 mothers of girls ages 11–16. Main Outcome Variables: The primary outcome variable was mothers’ intention to vaccinate their daughters against HPV. Secondary outcomes included mothers’ self-reported message comprehension and perceptions of daughters’ vulnerability to HPV infection, infection severity, vaccine efficacy, and obstacles to immunization. Results and Conclusion: Results showed that both risk presentation format and RQs had an overall positive effect on mothers’ intention to vaccinate their daughters. However, the interventions appear to be more effective when used separately than when used in combination. Each of these interventions is brief and could easily be implemented by health care providers as well as in patient health communication literature. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of organizational commitment in occupational stress models.

This study examined affective organizational commitment (AOC) and continuance organizational commitment (COC) as moderators of the relationship between job-related anxiety and intention to leave among 506 Israeli nurses who completed self-administered surveys. Prior research examining organizational commitment as a moderator between stress-related variables has shown inconsistent results, most probably because organizational commitment was tested as a moderator of stressor-strain relationships. Both AOC and COC buffered the relationship between job-related anxiety and intention to leave the hospital (i.e., the positive relationship was not as strong with high levels of commitment). There was no buffering effect on the relationship between role stressors and intention to leave. Further, the relationship between job-related anxiety and intention to leave increased more strongly for low levels (vs. high levels) of COC. Implications for the role of organizational commitment in stress models and implications for hospital administrators are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental changes in conformity to peers and parents.

Investigated developmental changes in conformity to parents and peers and relations between parent and peer conformity. In Study 1, 251 children in the 3rd, 6th, 9th, 11th, or 12th grade responded to hypothetical situations in which peers urged the child to perform either antisocial, prosocial, or neutral behaviors. For all types of behavior, the age trends for conformity were curvilinear, and peer conformity peaked in the 6th or 9th grade. In Study 2, 273 children in the 3rd, 6th, 9th, 11th, or 12th grades responded to situations testing conformity to peers on antisocial and prosocial behavior and conformity to parents on prosocial and neutral behavior. For antisocial behavior, a peak in peer conformity was found at the 9th grade. Significant age changes were not found for prosocial behavior. Conformity to parents on both types of behavior decreased steadily with age. With some but not all measures, conformity to parents and conformity to peers were negatively correlated. In addition, the relations between parents and peer conformity changed with age. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Employee customer orientation in context: How the environment moderates the influence of customer orientation on performance outcomes.

This empirical study evaluated the moderating effects of unit customer orientation (CO) climate and climate strength on the relationship between service workers’ level of CO and their performance of customer-oriented behaviors (COBs). In addition, the study examined whether aggregate COB performance influences unit profitability. Building on multisource, multilevel data, the study’s results suggest that the influence of employee CO on employee COB performance is positive when the unit’s CO climate is relatively high and that the constructs are unrelated when unit CO climate is relatively low. In addition, the data reveal that unit COB performance influences unit profitability by enhancing revenues without a concomitant increase in costs. The study’s results underscore the theoretical importance of considering cross-level influencers of employee-level relationships and suggest that managers should focus on creating a climate that is supportive of COBs if their units are to profit from the recruitment, hiring, and retention of customer-oriented employees. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Three situational determinants of conformity to social norms.

"The present study has been concerned with the determinants of conformity to group norms. The variables under investigation were: (a) the extent of initial disagreement between the individual's and the group's opinion (known as 'distance'); (b) the number of occasions the individual was exposed to the group norm (known as 'exposures'); and (c) the size of the group… . In general, greater distance makes for greater conformity… . Conformity occurs within the first few exposures to the group norm." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)