Consumers' perceptions regarding tradeoffs between food and fuel expenditures: A case study of U.S. and Belgian fuel users

Biofuels have been suggested as a sustainable alternative to fossil-based fuels, but when produced with inputs traditionally used as food and feed grain, the production of biofuels has contributed to price increases in the food sector. In the fall of 2006, a survey was administered to compare consumer perceptions regarding the tradeoff between renewable fuels and food in the United States (U.S.) (n = 242) and Belgium (n = 363). Results show that respondents in both countries prefer lower food prices to lower fuel prices (67.6% in the U.S. and 78.9% in Belgium). A logit model was estimated to determine which variables impacted whether a consumer favored policies that lower fuel prices at the cost of higher food prices. While the sample of Belgian respondents appeared to realize that lower fuel prices eventually had to come at the cost of higher food prices, the sample of U.S. respondents felt domestic agriculture could provide some low-cost, environmentally friendly alternatives with little impact on food prices. Accessible public transportation in Belgium acted as an important fuel saving strategy in that country and led respondents to emphasize food price decreases over fuel price decreases. Also, respondents with heightened awareness towards the environment recognized that the expansion of renewable fuels may need to come at the cost of higher food prices. These attitudes were similar in both countries. Finally, in both countries older respondents placed more importance on lower food prices than lower fuel prices.     

Biomass energy in organic farming—the potential role of short rotation coppice

One of the aims of organic farming is to “reduce the use of non-renewable resources (e.g. fossil fuels) to a minimum”. So far, however, only very little progress has been made to introduce renewable energy in organic farming. This paper presents energy balances of Danish organic farming compared with energy balances of conventional farming. In general, the conversion to organic farming leads to a lower energy use (approximately 10% per unit of product). But the production of energy in organic farming is very low compared with the extensive utilisation of straw from conventional farming in Denmark (energy content of straw used for energy production was equivalent to 18% of total energy input in Danish agriculture in 1996).Biomass is a key energy carrier with a good potential for on-farm development. Apart from utilising farm manure and crop residues for biogas production, the production of nutrient efficient short rotation coppice (SRC) is an option in organic farming. Alder (Alnus spp.) is an interesting crop due to its symbiosis with the actinomycete Frankia, which has the ability to fix up to 185 kg/ha nitrogen (N₂) from the air. Yields obtained at different European sites are presented and the R&D needed to implement energy cropping in organic farming is discussed.Possible win–win solutions for SRC production in organic farming that may facilitate its implementation are; the protection of ground water quality in intensively farmed areas, utilisation of wastewater for irrigation, or combination with outdoor animal husbandry such as pigs or poultry.     

A review on process modeling and design of biohydrogen

The current energy supply depends on fossil fuels which have increased carbon dioxide emissions leading to global warming and depleted non-renewable fossil fuels resources. Hydrogen (H₂) fuel could be an eco-friendly alternative since H₂ consumption only produces water. However, the overall impacts of the H₂ economy depend on feedstock types, production technologies, and process routes. The existing process technologies for H₂ production used fossil fuels encounter the escalation of fossil fuel prices and long-term sustainability challenges. Therefore, biohydrogen production from renewable resources like biomass wastes and wastewaters has become the focal development of a sustainable global energy supply. Different from other biohydrogen production studies, this paper emphasizes biohydrogen fermentation processes using different renewable sources and microorganisms. Moreover, it gives an overview of the latest advancing research in different biohydrogen process designs, modeling, and optimization. It also presents the biohydrogen production routes and kinetic modeling for biohydrogenation.     

Biomass energy and the environmental impacts associated with its production and utilization

Biomass is the first-ever fuel used by humankind and is also the fuel which was the mainstay of the global fuel economy till the middle of the 18th century. Then fossil fuels took over because fossil fuels were not only more abundant and denser in their energy content, but also generated less pollution when burnt, in comparison to biomass. In recent years there is a resurgence of interest in biomass energy because biomass is perceived as a carbon-neutral source of energy unlike net carbon-emitting fossil fuels of which copious use has led to global warming and ocean acidification.The paper takes stock of the various sources of biomass and the possible ways in which it can be utilized for generating energy. It then examines the environmental impacts, including impact vis a vis greenhouse gas emissions, of different biomass energy generation–utilization options.     

The effect of clove oil and diesel fuel blends on the engine performance and exhaust emissions of a compression-ignition engine

Diesel engines provide the major power source for transportation in the world and contribute to the prosperity of the worldwide economy. However, recent concerns over the environment, increasing fuel prices and the scarcity of fuel supplies have promoted considerable interest in searching for alternatives to petroleum based fuels. Based on this background, the main purpose of this investigation is to evaluate clove stem oil (CSO) as an alternative fuel for diesel engines. To this end, an experimental investigation was performed on a four-stroke, four-cylinder water-cooled direct injection diesel engine to study the performance and emissions of an engine operated using the CSO–diesel blended fuels. The effects of the CSO–diesel blended fuels on the engine brake thermal efficiency, brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), specific energy consumption (SEC), exhaust gas temperatures and exhaust emissions were investigated. The experimental results reveal that the engine brake thermal efficiency and BSFC of the CSO–diesel blended fuels were higher than the pure diesel fuel while at the same time they exhibited a lower SEC than the latter over the entire engine load range. The variations in exhaust gas temperatures between the tested fuels were significant only at medium speed operating conditions. Furthermore, the HC emissions were lower for the CSO–diesel blended fuels than the pure diesel fuel whereas the NO_x emissions were increased remarkably when the engine was fuelled with the 50% CSO–diesel blended fuel.     

Cost-effectiveness analysis of algae energy production in the EU

Today’s society relies heavily on fossil fuels as a main energy source. Global energy demand increase, energy security and climate change are the main drivers of the transition towards alternative energy sources. This paper analyses algal biodiesel production for the EU road transportation and compares it to the fossil fuels and 1st generation biofuels. A cost-effectiveness analysis was used to aggregate private and external costs and derive the social cost of each fuel. The following externalities were internalized: emissions (GHG and non-GHG), food prices impact, pesticides/fertilizers use and security of supply. Currently the social cost of producing algal biodiesel at 52.3 € GJ⁻¹ is higher than rapeseed biodiesel (36.0 € GJ⁻¹) and fossil fuels (15.8 € GJ⁻¹). Biotechnology development, high crude oil prices and high carbon value are the key features of the scenario where algal biodiesel outcompetes all other fuels. A substantial investment into the biotechnology sector and comprehensive environmental research and policy are required to make that scenario a reality.     

Integrated energy,environmental and financial analysis of ethanol production from cellulosic switchgrass

Ethanol production from cellulosic sources such as switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) requires the use of natural resources, fossil fuels, electricity, and human-derived goods and services. We used emergy accounting to integrate the ultimate amount of environmental, fossil fuel, and human-derived energy required to produce ethanol from switchgrass. Emergy is the total amount of energy of one form required directly and indirectly to make another form of energy. Forty-four percent of required emergy came from the environment either directly or embodied in purchased goods, 30% came from fossil fuels either directly or embodied in purchased goods, and 25% came from human-derived services indirectly. Ethanol production per petroleum use (emergy/emergy) was 4.0-to-1 under our Baseline Scenario, but dropped to 0.5-to-1 under a scenario that assumed higher input prices, lower conversion efficiencies and less waste recycling. At least 75% of total emergy was from non-renewable sources. Energy ‘hidden’ in indirect paths such as goods and services was 65% of the total. Cellulosic-ethanol is not a primary fuel source that substitutes for petroleum because its production relies heavily on non-renewable energy and purchased inputs. It is a means for converting natural resources to liquid fuel.     

Coproduction of district heat and electricity or biomotor fuels

The operation of a district heating system depends on the heat load demand, which varies throughout the year. In this paper, we analyze the coproduction of district heat and electricity or biomotor fuels. We demonstrate how three different taxation scenarios and two crude oil price levels influence the selection of production units to minimize the district heat production cost and calculate the resulting primary energy use. Our analysis is based on the annual measured heat load of a district heating system. The minimum-cost district heat production system comprises different production units that meet the district heat demand and simultaneously minimize the district heat production cost. First, we optimize the cost of a district heat production system based on the cogeneration of electricity and heat with and without biomass integrated gasification combined-cycle technology. We considered cogenerated electricity as a byproduct with the value of that produced by a condensing power plant. Next, we integrate and optimize different biomotor fuel production units into the district heat production system by considering biomotor fuels as byproducts that can substitute for fossil motor fuels. We demonstrate that in district heating systems, the strengthening of environmental taxation reduces the dependence on fossil fuels. However, increases in environmental taxation and the crude oil price do not necessarily influence the production cost of district heat as long as biomass price is not driven by policy measures. Biomotor fuel production in a district heating system is typically not cost-efficient. The biomotor fuels produced from the district heating system have to compete with those from standalone biomotor fuel plants and also with its fossil-based counterparts. This is also true for high oil prices. A carbon tax on fossil CO₂ emissions based on social cost damage will increase the competitiveness of biomass-based combined heat and power plants, especially for BIGCC technology with its high electricity-to-heat ratio.     

Review of NOx reduction technologies in CI engines fuelled with oxygenated biomass fuels

Oxygenated fuels like biodiesel and alcohols have the potential to provide a reliable and a cost effective alternative to India's increasing future energy demands. They have a prospective future since they are renewable and can be produced easily in India's rural areas. Due to rapid industrialization and the increased number of vehicles on the road, the energy needs of the country are increasing rapidly. Oxygenated fuels can substantially replace the large demand for diesel to generate power for the industries and to fuel diesel engines of the vehicles. In spite of the many advantages of using them, most of the researchers have reported higher NO_x emissions, which is a deterrent to the market expansion of these fuels. The present program aims to review the NO_x emissions from the CI engines fuelled with oxygenated fuels. To meet the stringent emission norms, the various NO_x reduction technologies like use of additives, retarded fuel injection timing, biodiesel emulsion with water, and exhaust gas recirculation are reviewed. The results of the most effective and low cost technique of EGR in DI diesel engine fuelled with biodiesel–diesel blends and tri-compound oxygenated diesel fuel blends (ethanol–biodiesel–diesel fuel blends and methanol–biodiesel–diesel fuel blends) are presented.     

Energy use and CO2 emissions for Mexico's cement industry

Energy use and CO₂ emissions in the Mexican cement industry are analyzed for the period 1982–94. Using the Laspeyres index method, we estimate the relative importance of fuel intensity, clinker activity, the cement/clinker ratio, and the use of waste tires as an alternative fuel in the changes of clinker fuel use. Changes in CO₂ emissions are divided into energy intensity, cement activity, the cement/clinker ratio, and primary and final fuel-mix effects. The study shows that changes in all factors except for clinker activity drive fuel use down. Overall CO₂ emissions are reduced by changes in real energy intensity and the clinker/cement ratio, while the primary fuel-mix effect (which accounts for changes in the share of final energy used to produce both cement and electricity) and cement activity drive emissions up.     

Development of Oshawa hydrogen hub in Canada: A case study

Consumption of fossil fuels, which makes an immense contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, must be reduced. Hydrogen emerges as a unique solution to serve as fuel, energy carrier and feedstock because it is a clean, abundant, environmentally friendly and energy intensive gas. This study aims to investigate the development of a potential hydrogen hub located in Oshawa, Canada, which is aimed to provide a hydrogen infrastructure for future hydrogen economy. Numerous life cycle assessment and cost assessment studies are conducted to investigate what benefits such a hydrogen will bring to the city. The results show that fuel cell electric buses emit 89% fewer pollutants. Also, 60% of overall CO₂ reduction is possible with a gradual transition to fuel cell technology within 20 years. However, in order for hydrogen infrastructure and costs to compete with fossil fuels, high-scale projects need to be developed with governmental incentives.     

Impact of a carbon tax on the Chilean economy: A computable general equilibrium analysis

In 2009, the government of Chile announced their official commitment to reduce national greenhouse gas emissions by 20% below a business-as-usual projection by 2020. Due to the fact that an effective way to reduce emissions is to implement a national carbon tax, the goal of this article is to quantify the value of a carbon tax that will allow the achievement of the emission reduction target and to assess its impact on the economy.The approach used in this work is to compare the economy before and after the implementation of the carbon tax by creating a static computable general equilibrium model of the Chilean economy. The model developed here disaggregates the economy in 23 industries and 23 commodities, and it uses four consumer agents (households, government, investment, and the rest of the world). By setting specific production and consumptions functions, the model can assess the variation in commodity prices, industrial production, and agent consumption, allowing a cross-sectoral analysis of the impact of the carbon tax. The benchmark of the economy, upon which the analysis is based, came from a social accounting matrix specially constructed for this model, based on the year 2010.The carbon tax was modeled as an ad valorem tax under two scenarios: tax on emissions from fossil fuels burned only by producers and tax on emissions from fossil fuels burned by producers and households. The abatement cost curve has shown that it is more cost-effective to tax only producers, rather than to tax both producers and households. This is due to the fact that when compared to the emission level observed in 2010, a 20% emission reduction will cause a loss in GDP of 2% and 2.3% respectively. Under the two scenarios, the tax value that could lead to that emission reduction is around 26 US dollars per ton of CO₂-equivalent. The most affected productive sectors are oil refinery, transport, and electricity — having a contraction between 7% and 9%. Analyzing the electricity sector by energy source, the production of electricity from fossil fuels will decrease by 11%, but electricity from renewables will increase by 43%. Electricity producers will pass the cost of the carbon tax to the consumer by increasing the price of electricity by 8%.The findings of this paper will allow policy makers to take better and more informed decisions, by providing a cross-sectoral analysis of the impact on the economy of reducing emissions by 20% by implementing a national carbon tax.     

An econometrics view of worldwide fossil fuel consumption and the role of US

Crude oil, coal and gas, known as fossil fuels, play a crucial role in the global economy. This paper proposes new econometrics modelling to demonstrate the trend of fossil fuels consumption. The main variables affecting consumption trends are: world reserves, the price of fossil fuels, US production and US net imports. All variables have been analysed individually for more than half a century. The research found that while the consumption of fossil fuels worldwide has increased trends in the US production and net imports have been dependent on the type of fossil fuels. Most of the US coal and gas production has been for domestic use, which is why it does not have a strong influence on worldwide fossil fuel prices. Moreover, the reserves of fossil fuels have not shown any diminution during the last couple of decades and predictions that they were about to run out are not substantiated. The nominal and real price of fossil fuels was found to change depending on the type. Finally, estimates of three econometric models for the consumption of fossil fuels from 1949 to 2006 are presented which identify the effects of significant variables.     

Will hydrogen be competitive in Europe without tax favours?

Hydrogen is one of the alternative transport fuels expected to replace conventional oil based fuels. The paper finds that it is possible for non-fossil-based hydrogen to become the lowest cost fuel without favourable tax treatment. The order of per kilometre cost depends on performance in hydrogen production, the international oil price, and fuel taxes. At low oil prices, the highest per kilometre costs were found for non-fossil power-based hydrogen, the second highest for natural gas-based hydrogen, and the lowest for conventional fuels. At high oil prices, this ranking is reversed and non-fossil power-based hydrogen becomes the most cost competitive fuel. General fuel taxes lower the threshold at which the international oil price reverses this competitiveness order. The highest fuel tax rates applied in Europe lowers this threshold oil price considerably, whereas the lowest fuel taxes may be insufficient to make hydrogen competitive without tax favours. Alternative adjustments of the EU minimum fuel tax rates with a view to energy efficiency and CO₂-emissions are discussed.     

Taxation on vehicle fuels: its impacts on switching to cleaner fuels

Vehicular consumption of fossil fuel contributes over 90% of air pollution in Hong Kong. A key strategy to improve Hong Kong's air quality is to discourage dirty fuels (e.g., leaded petrol and high-sulphur diesel) and to promote the use of clean fuels (e.g., low-sulphur diesel and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)). This paper presents the empirical evidence on the effectiveness of the Government's clean fuel programs that offer tax subsidy to lower the consumption cost of such fuels. For the cases of unleaded petrol and ultra-low-sulphur diesel, lower fuel duties were offered so that the prices of these fuels were below those of leaded petrol and conventional diesel. Conventional petrol and diesel were phased out. In order to decide on the level of fuel duty concessions required to introduce LPG for taxis and bio-diesel for other vehicles, various Government-run trial programs were introduced to obtain cost estimates of using these alternative cleaner fuels. LPG using vehicles were subsequently exempted from the fuel duty in order to attract taxi and light bus operators to switch to LPG. It is apparent that the higher the subsidy, the faster is the rate at which switching to cleaner fuels takes place.     

An assessment of biomass feedstock availability for the supply of bioenergy to University College Dublin

As the cost of energy rises due to an increase in fossil fuels prices, the need to develop a sustainable alternative that will reduce green house gas emissions has increased in importance. One such alternative to reduce dependency on fossil fuels is the use of biomass for bioenergy generation. This study aims to quantify how much biomass can be produced in a specific area with a maximum haulage distance of 75 km to its end location, in this case, a large residential campus, to supply fuel to a biomass boiler. The study is carried out by identifying potential sources of biomass within the catchment zone and then quantifying it under different scenarios. The first scenario focuses on minimum land use impact, which quantifies how much biomass could be achieved taking just 10% of biomass from the sources identified. The second scenario is the maximum energy scenario and is set out to establish the maximum amount of energy that could be generated within the catchment zone using 50–100% of available biomass. The final scenario is the environmental scenario which looks to quantify biomass while not infringing on existing land uses such as agriculture and forestry. Results show that scenario one could produce almost 6 PJ of energy which is, scenario two could produce over 31 PJ of energy and scenario three could produce almost 14 PJ of energy.     

Political,economic and environmental impacts of biomass-based hydrogen

The purpose of this study is to assess the political, economic and environmental impacts of producing hydrogen from biomass. Hydrogen is a promising renewable fuel for transportation and domestic applications. Hydrogen is a secondary form of energy that has to be manufactured like electricity. The promise of hydrogen as an energy carrier that can provide pollution-free, carbon-free power and fuels for buildings, industry, and transport makes it a potentially critical player in our energy future. Currently, most hydrogen is derived from non-renewable resources by steam reforming in which fossil fuels, primarily natural gas, but could in principle be generated from renewable resources such as biomass by gasification. Hydrogen production from fossil fuels is not renewable and produces at least the same amount of CO₂ as the direct combustion of the fossil fuel. The production of hydrogen from biomass has several advantages compared to that of fossil fuels. The major problem in utilization of hydrogen gas as a fuel is its unavailability in nature and the need for inexpensive production methods. Hydrogen production using steam reforming methane is the most economical method among the current commercial processes. These processes use non-renewable energy sources to produce hydrogen and are not sustainable. It is believed that in the future biomass can become an important sustainable source of hydrogen. Several studies have shown that the cost of producing hydrogen from biomass is strongly dependent on the cost of the feedstock. Biomass, in particular, could be a low-cost option for some countries. Therefore, a cost-effective energy-production process could be achieved in which agricultural wastes and various other biomasses are recycled to produce hydrogen economically. Policy interest in moving towards a hydrogen-based economy is rising, largely because converting hydrogen into useable energy can be more efficient than fossil fuels and has the virtue of only producing water as the by-product of the process. Achieving large-scale changes to develop a sustained hydrogen economy requires a large amount of planning and cooperation at national and international alike levels.     

Life cycle cost analysis: A case study of hydrogen energy application on the Orkney Islands

Hydrogen can compensate for the intermittent nature of some renewable energy sources and encompass the options of supplying renewables to offset the use of fossil fuels. The integrating of hydrogen application into the energy system will change the current energy market. Therefore, this paper deploys the life cycle cost analysis of hydrogen production by polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysis and applications for electricity and mobility purposes. The hydrogen production process includes electricity generated from wind turbines, PEM electrolyser, hydrogen compression, storage, and distribution by H₂ truck and tube trailer. The hydrogen application process includes PEM fuel cell stacks generating electricity, a H₂ refuelling station supplying hydrogen, and range extender fuel cell electric vehicles (RE-FCEVs). The cost analysis is conducted from a demonstration project of green hydrogen on a remote archipelago. The methodology of life cycle cost is employed to conduct the cost of hydrogen production and application. Five scenarios are developed to compare the cost of hydrogen applications with the conventional energy sources considering CO₂ emission cost. The comparisons show the cost of using hydrogen for energy purposes is still higher than the cost of using fossil fuels. The largest contributor of the cost is the electricity consumption. In the sensitivity analysis, policy supports such as feed-in tariff (FITs) could bring completive of hydrogen with fossil fuels in current energy market.     

Carbon-neutral economy with fossil fuel-based hydrogen energy and carbon materials

Hydrocarbon fossil fuels can be considered as hydrogen ores for CO₂-free energy, and carbon ores for carbonaceous construction materials. Hydrogen fuel can be extracted from fossil fuels by decarbonization, and used as an energy resource. The carbon byproduct can be used as a versatile construction material. Carbon materials would sequester carbon, and replace CO₂-generating steel and concrete. Approximate comparison of the global consumption of energy and construction materials suggests a rough mass balance of energy and materials markets. The cost of foregoing the carbon energy content as a fuel can be easily offset by the value of the carbon-based construction material. The nature and properties of carbon materials and conventional infrastructural materials are compared.     

The effects of Al2O3–TiO2 coating in a diesel engine on performance and emission of corn oil methyl ester

Today, as a result of increase in oil prices, limited fossil fuel resources, environmental consideration and global warming, the methyl ester fuels have been focused on alternative fuels. Methyl ester fuels can be used more efficiently in low heat rejection engines (LHR), in which the temperature of combustion chamber is increased by creating a thermal barrier. In this study, the piston, cylinder head, exhaust and inlet valves of a diesel engine were coated with the ceramic material Al₂O₃–TiO₂ by the plasma spray method. Thus, a thermal barrier was provided for the parts of the combustion chamber with these coatings. The effects of corn oil methyl ester that produced by the transesterification method, and No. D2 fuels’ performance and exhaust emissions’ rate were studied by using equal in every respect coated and uncoated engines. Tests were performed on the uncoated engine, and then repeated on the coated engine and the results were compared. A decrease in engine power and specific fuel consumption, as well as significant improvements in exhaust gas emissions (except NOx), were observed for all test fuels used in the coated engine compared with that of the uncoated engine.