Calcium Fortified, Reduced Fat Beef Emulsion Product

Characteristics were investigated on a 15%/25%, fat/added water beef frankfurter supplemented with calcium (calcium carbonate or calcium-citrate-malate complex, CCM) to meet 25, 50, 75 or 100% of adult U.S. RDA in one 45g frankfurter. Controls contained 15%/25% or 30%/10% fat/added water. Compared to controls, calcium addition did not reduce yield although batters containing CCM had lower viscosity (P<0.05). During storage, pH of calcium added frankfurters increased about 0.35 units. Frankfurters formulated with 100% levels for calcium were least acceptable to sensory panelists. Frankfurters were softer and had less springiness and chewiness (P<0.05) when supplemented with 100% levels for calcium.     

Formulation and Copping Temperature Effects on Beef Frankfurters

Frankfurters were manufactured using four fat and added water (AW) formulations (10% fat/30% AW; 15%/25%; 20%/20%; 30%/10%) and processed at chopping temperatures 9, 12, or 15°C. The batters were stuffed into cellulose casings, thermally processed, chilled and vacuum-packaged. Frankfurters were analyzed for proximate composition, textural properties and purge. No differences occurred among treatments for processing yield (89.8%± 1.83). Frankfurters chopped to 12°C had the highest (P < 0.05) Kramer peak force values. As expected, purge increased in all treatments as storage time increased (P < 0.05). As AW increased, hardness and cohesiveness decreased and purge increased. Water level and fat reduction were the most critical factors affecting quality.     

Effect of varying salt and fat levels on the sensory and physiochemical quality of frankfurters

The sensory and physiochemical properties of frankfurters with varying fat and salt levels were investigated. Twenty frankfurter formulations were produced with varying concentrations of fat (10%, 15%, 20%, 25% w/w) and salt (1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3% w/w). Frankfurters were assessed instrumentally for colour, moisture, fat, cooking loss and texture profile analysis. Consumers (n=25) evaluated each product in duplicate for colour, coarseness, tenderness, juiciness, salt taste, meat flavour, off-flavour and overall acceptability using a hedonic scale. Salt levels below 1.5% were shown to have a negative effect on consumer acceptability, with 2.5% salt concentration being the most accepted (P<0.001) by consumers. However, frankfurters containing the lower fat levels 10% and 15% fat with higher salt levels (2.5-3%) were significantly the most acceptable variants to consumers. Samples containing less fat and salt were found to be tougher, less juicy and had greater cooking losses. Thus salt perception is very important for consumer acceptability, but fat levels can be potentially reduced without significantly affecting overall acceptability.     

Low-Fat, High-Moisture Frankfurters: Effects of Temperature and Water during Extended Mixing

Frankfurters containing 15% fat and 25% added water were produced using conventional practice or minced meat batters were mixed for 30 min (extended mixing, EM) at 2 or 16°C with all or 30% of the formulation water. EM had minimal effects on yield, purge, and texture. Products were darker and less yellow than non-EM frankfurters. The lower mixing temperature resulted in firmer (P < 0.05) frankfurters. However, mixing temperature did not affect other properties. Time of water addition affected most properties. Frankfurters from treatments mixed with 100% of formulation water were firmer, darker, redder, less yellow, and required more extension to fracture.     

Baking Studies with Winged Bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus L.DC) Flour-Wheat Flour Blends

Physical, rheological and baking properties of winged bean-wheat composite flours were studied and the acceptability of the bread was evaluated by sensory tests. The sponge-dough method (SPD) gave bread with significantly greater specific loaf volume (P<0.05) than the straight-dough method (STD). Incorporation of 1% sodium stearoyl 2-lactylate (SSL) significantly improved (P<0.05) the specific loaf volume at all concentrations of winged bean full-fat flour (WBFF) tested, except for 15 and 20% substitution, for both STD and SPD methods. Using the STD method, 5% to 8% substitution of WBFF without SSL and 10% substitution with SSL gave acceptable breads. Using the SPD method, WBFF substitution at 10% without SSL and 12% with SSL gave acceptable breads.     

Acceptability of low-fat frankfurters as influenced by the feeding of elevated levels of monounsaturated fats to growing-finishing swine

The effects of high levels of oleic acid in the diet on the physical, chemical and sensory traits of frankfurters were examined. Frankfurters were formulated at three fat levels (10, 20 and 25%) from pork trimmings from each dietary treatment. The control frankfurters were the most springy, firm, flavorful and palatable and had the most intense flavor (P < 0·05). However, low-fat frankfurters produced from the high-oleate treatments were comparable to the control in all sensory characteristics (P > 0·05). The 10 and 25% fat frankfurters were rated highest and lowest, respectively, for juiciness, springiness, firmness, flavor, flavor intensity and overall palatability (P < 0·05). Sensory panelists detected off-flavors in the 25% fat frankfurters more frequently than in the 10% fat frankfurters (P < 0·05). 2-Thiobarbituric acid values were not affected by treatment and were acceptable after storage at 2°C for 24 weeks (P < 0·05).     

Replacement of beef fat in Frankfurters by interesterified palm,cottonseed and olive oils

Three interesterified vegetable oils (IVOs) prepared from palm, cottonseed, and olive oil, respectively, have been studied for application to Frankfurters. Beef fat (10%) was replaced by one of the IVOs at 20, 60 or 100%. Fatty acid composition of the lipid fraction in the Frankfurters and saturated/unsaturated ratios were established for all batches. We found that total or partial replacement of beef fat by IVOs did not lead to significant changes in appearance, colour, texture, flavour or sensory score. We conclude that IVOs may be successfully applied as beef fat substitutes in Frankfurters.     

CHARACTERISTICS OF LOW-FAT FRANKFURTERS MANUFACTURED WITH MODIFIED BEEF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

A 3 fat level (8%, 16% and 24%, finished weight basis) × 5 modified connective tissue level (0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%, meat block basis) complete factorial design was employed to characterize frankfurters manufactured with modified beef connective tissue (MCT). Thermal processing yields improved 2–3% with the addition of 20% or more MCT. Level of MCT did not affect average consumer cook yields. Kramer Shear parameters were higher with higher levels of MCT. Frankfurter cohesiveness declined with an increase in MCT. A consumer panel found low-fat frankfurters to be less desirable in almost all traits than high fat products. Frankfurters with 10–20% MCT were as desirable as controls (0% MCT). Frankfurter external and internal color was lighter as level of MCT increased. Frankfurters with MCT were rated as desirable by a consumer sensory panel, and had color and yields similar to higher fat products.     

Emulsion Stability and Sensory Quality of Beef Frankfurters Produced at Different Fat or Peanut Oil Levels

Frankfurters were produced at 12, 20 and 29% fat levels using beef fat or 60% substitution with peanut oil. Less emulsion stability, lower smokehouse yield and lower sensory juiciness scores were found as final fat content of beef frankfurters was lowered to 12%. Firmness, darkening of external color, and flavor intensity were enhanced in the low fat product. Frankfurters with 60% fat as peanut oil exhibited comparable emulsion stability and sensory quality parameters with no rancid flavor development over a period of 6 weeks at 4°C. They were as acceptable to sensory panels as the 29% beef fat frankfurters. Substitution of 60% of the beef fat with peanut oil resulted in a product with significantly (P < 0.05) less cholesterol content.     

Effect of varying salt and fat levels on the sensory and physiochemical quality of frankfurters

The sensory and physiochemical properties of frankfurters with varying fat and salt levels were investigated. Twenty frankfurter formulations were produced with varying concentrations of fat (10%, 15%, 20%, 25% w/w) and salt (1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3% w/w). Frankfurters were assessed instrumentally for colour, moisture, fat, cooking loss and texture profile analysis. Consumers (n = 25) evaluated each product in duplicate for colour, coarseness, tenderness, juiciness, salt taste, meat flavour, off-flavour and overall acceptability using a hedonic scale. Salt levels below 1.5% were shown to have a negative effect on consumer acceptability, with 2.5% salt concentration being the most accepted (P < 0.001) by consumers. However, frankfurters containing the lower fat levels 10% and 15% fat with higher salt levels (2.5–3%) were significantly the most acceptable variants to consumers. Samples containing less fat and salt were found to be tougher, less juicy and had greater cooking losses. Thus salt perception is very important for consumer acceptability, but fat levels can be potentially reduced without significantly affecting overall acceptability.     

EFFECTS OF AN AUTOLYZED YEAST ON PHYSICAL AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF FRANKFURTERS

Three experiments were conducted to determine effects of autolyzed yeast on frankfurter firmness, flavor, and yields. Smokehouse yields of laboratory prepared frankfurters (Experiment #1) were not affected (P < 0.05) by addition of autolyzed yeast (1%). Commercially produced frankfurters containing 0%, 1.0%, or 1.5% yeast (Experiment #2) or 0%, 0.75% or 1.0% yeast (Experiment #3) were subjected to sensory and yield evaluations. Frankfurters from Experiment #2, with 1% autolyzed yeast were more firm (P < .10) than control frankfurters. Frankfurters from Experiment #3 with 0.75% and 1.0% autolyzed yeast were more firm (P < .01, P < .10) than controls. Vacuum packaged frankfurters containing yeast (Experiments #2 and #3), held 2, 4, or 6 weeks at 2–5°C, had less purge than their respective controls. Autolyzed yeast appeaers to enhance frankfurter flavor and firmness while reducing purge in vacuum packaged product.     

Comparison of Rabbit, Beef, and Chicken Meats for Functional Properties and Frankfurter Processing

The functional properties of rabbit meat were compared with those of beef and chicken meats. Protein solubilities, water-holding capacities, emulsifying capacities, and binding strengths were approximately equal. Frankfurter emulsions made from rabbit and chicken were formed more easily than those from beef and were more stable. Frankfurters from beef were firmer and were coarser in texture. Sensory evaluations for flavor, texture, and overall acceptability demonstrated that frankfurters made from rabbit meat were equal to those from beef and slightly superior to those from chicken. Quality and sensory scores for rabbit frankfurters containing 15% protein, 20% fat and 1.7% salt were also very acceptable.     

Effect of natural colourants and nitrites on colour attributes of frankfurters

The colour attributes in a control and six more treatments of frankfurters (18% fat) produced with natural colourants and two levels of NaNO(2) (0 and 150 mg/kg) were studied. The following natural colourants, permitted by the EU 94/36 guideline, were used: E 100 curcumin (CU), E 120 carminic acid (CA), E 150a caramel (CR), E 160a beta-carotene (BC), E 160g paprika-extract (PE) and E162 betanin (B). CA, B, BC and PE significantly increased the redness of batter, while BC, PE and CU increased (p<0.05) the yellowness. NaNO(2) decreased (p<0.05) the redness of batters in all treatments. Frankfurters with CA had the highest a* value followed by those with BC, PE and B. BC, PE and B increased the yellowness of frankfurters. NaNO(2) increased (p<0.05) the redness of frankfurters in all treatments. The storage of frankfurters for 4 weeks had no effect on redness and yellowness of frankfurters. Exposure either for 2 h in sunlight or for 4 h in artificial light had no significant effect on redness and yellowness of frankfurters from all treatments. Canned frankfurters (117°) with B had the greatest decrease in redness while those with BC the greatest increase in yellowness. Frankfurters with B were the most acceptable from the consumers according to their colour followed by those with PE. Frankfurters with B had also the highest score for overall acceptability, followed by those with CA and nitrites. By employing discriminant analysis on the data, equations were derived for the identification of the natural colourant used in the production of frankfurters. Results from frankfurters, produced with 0, 3.6, 14.4 and 28.8 mg of pure B kg and 100 and 150 mg/kg NaNO(2), have shown that the level of NaNO(2) can be reduced from 150 to 100 mg/kg with appropriate increase in B level and frankfurters with 14.4 mg B/kg were the most acceptable from the consumers according to their colour.     

Cure Levels, Processing Methods and Meat Source Effects on Low-fat Frankfurters

Frankfurters were manufactured from lean meats (100% beef and 50:50 beef-pork) to contain reduced levels of fat (about 1.3%). A curing solutibn was added to yield 160% of fresh meat weight. Three processing methods, coarse ground tumbled, fine ground tumbled and fine ground emulsified were used. All products were cooked in live steam to 71°C internal temperature. Product yields, penetrometer values, color, chemical composition, caloric content and added water were evaluated. Emulsified frankfurters from 50:50 beef-pork mixtures at 160% cure had texture similar to conventional product as well as increased (P<0.05) yields, acceptable color and 74% fewer calories.     

Textural Properties of Chicken Frankfurters with Added Collagen Fibers

Chicken frankfurters made with 0, 2, 4, 6, 8% added collagen fibers and 10, 15, 20, 25, 30% added water were evaluated for textural differences using a torsion test and sensory texture profile analysis. Frankfurters with high amounts of added water and low amounts of collagen fibers had lower shear stress values. Sensory analysis indicated that both collagen fibers and added water had significant influences (P<0.05) on hardness, springiness and juiciness. The addition of collagen fibers resulted in harder, springier, and less juicy frankfurters. Added water resulted in softer, less springy and juicier frankfurters. Response surface methodology demonstrated that for 2% added collagen, the optimum added water was ～20%.     

Effect of tomato paste and nitrite level on processing and quality characteristics of frankfurters

Fourteen treatments of frankfurters (18% fat) were produced with two levels of sodium nitrite, 0 and 150mg/kg (0.015%), and seven levels (0%,2%,6%,8%,12% and 16%) of tomato paste with 12% soluble solids The higher the tomato paste level the higher the preference of consumers for frankfurters based on their colour. Frankfurters with 16% tomato paste had a sour taste while those with 12% tomato paste were the most acceptable. In a 2nd experiment three treatments of frankfurters (18% fat) were produced with 0, 50 and 100mg/kg of sodium nitrite and 12% tomato paste and a fourth (control) with only 150mg/kg sodium nitrite. Treatments with 12% tomato paste had lower (p<0.05) pH values and residual nitrite, and higher (p<0.05) thiobarbituric acid values, lightness and yellowness than control. Frankfurters with reduced levels of sodium nitrite (50 and 100mg/kg) and 12% tomato paste had the highest (p<0.05) redness. Storage time affected (p<0.05) all quality attributes. The nitrites added to frankfurters can be reduced from 150mg/kg to 100mg/kg in combination with 12% tomato paste without any negative effect on the quality of the product.     

Chemical effects of smoke processing on frankfurter quality and palatability characteristics

Frankfurters were made by standard commercial practices except for the smoke treatment which involved four different methods: solid smoke-aerosol, liquid smoke-aerosol, liquid smoke-external dip and liquid smoke-internal mix. For control purposes, frankfurters were prepared without any smoke treatment. All frankfurters were packaged and stored at 5°C with samples removed for analyses weekly for three weeks. All smoke-processing treatments resulted in products assessed as overall acceptable with the experienced sensory panel unable to detect differences among the various methods of manufacture except for the franks made by mixing liquid smoke in the emulsion. However, the flavour scores of those products subjected to external smoke-processing treatments were higher and more acceptable than the other two treatments. Frankfurters manufactured using aerosol smoke treatments were rated by sensory panellists as the most tender. However, shear force measurements indicated that those franks processed with external liquid smoke treatments were somewhat less tender. Liquid smoke-processing techniques favoured the development of a more desirable cured colour. The most stable colour was attributed to the liquid smoke-processing system in which the smoke materials were mixed in the emulsion. All palatability properties (sensory and colour) were highly correlated with the smokiness of the product. Generally, storage time had little effect on frankfurter palatability characteristics.     

PROCESSING CHARACTERISTICS AND YIELD OF PORK FRANKFURTERS MANUFACTURED FROM GILTS ADMINISTERED EXOGENOUS PORCINE SOMATOTROPIN

Eighteen gilts (75 kg) were injected daily with 0, 2.5, or 5 mg of porcine somatotropin (pST) for either 30 or 31 days prior to slaughter to examine the effects of dose of pST administration to swine on processing characteristics of frankfurters manufactured from pork. Frankfurters were manufactured from New York shoulders (NAMP #404) and formulated with fat from the same carcass to a final product target of 22% fat and 10% added water. Frankfurters from pST- treated gilts had lower smokehouse yields (0.9% decrease; P <.005) and greater shear force peak height (35.4% increase; P < 0.05) compared with the controls. The increased shear force required for skin failure of frankfurters manufactured from pork from pST-treated pigs was not readily explained by other differences due to treatment (e.g., cooking stability, batter proximate composition or salt soluble protein content; all P > 0.05)     

Inhibition of Salmonella by Sodium Nitrite and Potassium Sorbate in Frankfurters

All beef frankfurters and beef-pork frankfurters containing various levels of sodium nitrite (0, 50, or 156 ppm) or potassium sorbate (0, 0.26, or 0.39%) alone or in combination (50 ppm nitrite + 0.26% sorbate) were prepared. Frankfurters were inoculated with nalidixic acid resistant Salmonella and incubated at 15°C and 27°C for up to 21 days. Frankfurters formulated with 50 or 156 ppm nitrite and incubated at 27°C, or 50 ppm nitrite and incubated at 15°C failed to inhibit the growth of Salmonella. Sorbate alone and sorbate in combination with 50 ppm nitrite were equally effective in inhibiting Salmonella at either temperature and were equivalent to 156 ppm nitrite in inhibiting Salmonella at 15°C.     

Combining pediocin with postpackaging irradiation for control of Listeria monocytogenes on frankfurters

Frankfurters, in 1-link, 5-link, or 10-link packages, were surface inoculated with a five-strain mixture of Listeria monocytogenes (3.40 or 5.20 log CFU/g) after treatment with 3,000 arbitrary units (AU) or 6,000 AU of pediocin (in ALTA 2341) per link. The frankfurters were vacuum packaged, after which the 1-link and 5-link packages were irradiated at 1.2 or 2.3 kGy and the 10-link packages were irradiated at 1.4 or 3.5 kGy. L. monocytogenes was enumerated following the treatments. Selected treatments were subsequently evaluated during storage at 4, 10, and 25 degrees C for up to 12 weeks. Combination of pediocin with postpackaging irradiation at 1.2 kGy or more was necessary to achieve a 50% reduction of L. monocytogenes on frankfurters in 1-link or 5-link packages. The combination of 6,000 AU of pediocin and irradiation at 2.3 kGy or more was effective in all package sizes for inhibition of the pathogen for 12 weeks at 4 or 10 degrees C. There was a synergistic effect between pediocin and irradiation for inhibition of L. monocytogenes. Storage at 4 degrees C enhanced the antilisterial effects of the treatment combinations, with little or no growth of the pathogen in 1-link or 5-link packages during 12 weeks of storage. In general, these treatments did not affect the sensory quality of frankfurters.