Use of basic color terms by red–green dichromats: 1. General description

Abstract: In this article we present data comparing red–green dichromats' use of “Basic Color Terms” (BCTs) with that of standard trichromats. In a complementary article (Color Res Appl 2013) we use these data to evaluate two models of the mechanisms underlying dichromats' use of BCTs. There were three groups of observers—trichromats, protanopes, and deuteranopes—that each performed two tasks: “mapping” (which of these are exemplars of X?) and “best exemplar” (which is the best instance of X?), where X took the value of each Spanish BCT. The mapping task results were subjected to multidimensional scaling that revealed that dichromats differ from trichromats in the number and nature of the dimensions needed for describing BCTs' use. Trichromats required three dimensions closely related to the opponent color mechanisms (red–green, yellow–blue) and the light‐dark channel. In contrast, tridimensional solution for dichromats was difficult to interpret, whereas the fit for the bidimensional solution was very good and revealed a chromatic dimension, which did not match any of the trichromatic dimensions, and an achromatic one. There were also some error‐asymmetries (sometimes “A” was the predominant error when choosing exemplars of “B”, but not vice versa) and the groups differed in the frequency of use of some BCTs (e.g., protanopes chose more stimuli as orange than trichromats and deuteranopes). As expected, the best exemplar task produced more correct responses than the mapping task, and for both tasks, “primary” BCTs (black, white, red, green, yellow, and blue) produced better results than “derived” ones (brown, purple, orange, pink, and grey). © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 39, 360–371, 2014     

Color rendering: Asking the question

Two white lights may have the same chromaticity, and yet when used to light an array of objects may differ in their ability to reveal colors. For example, any white light can be matched by a mixture of two narrow‐band lights, a yellow plus a blue. In this extreme case, reds and greens become black or brown and the red‐green dimension is lost. At the other extreme, a light with three narrow bands, at the proper wavelengths, can brighten reds and greens and increase red‐green contrast, relative to a broad‐band light such as daylight. Many commercial lights tend to dull reds and greens, relative to broad‐band sources, a central reason that color rendering is a practical concern. A telling example is neodymium glass, a yellow‐absorbing filter that is sometimes used to improve color rendering. This article seeks to bring these ideas to life through detailed graphical examples. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 28, 403–412, 2003; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.10193     

Gray and grayness—its complexities in color appearance of surface colors

Complexities on the roles of reference color gray and grayness are reviewed. They are essential in color appearance, but gray is an implicit color. Although “grayness” is not explicitly used in visual color assessment of surface colors or color order systems, gray can be combined with any colors having six primary‐color components using the term “grayish,” for example, grayish red and grayish yellow. However, the existing region of grayness is limited in a part of color‐appearance space. Illuminance dependency of gray perception is also clarified. Existence of two kinds of psychometric quantities are suggested: one is the attribute of grayness based on its psychological amount in a grayish color under study, and the other is the attribute of brightness of the grayish color under a specified illuminance, psychophysical quantity. The Nayatani‐Theoretical color order system, which uses three opponent‐colors axes, can clarify the above complexities of gray and grayness. Its importance is the same as six primary colors, red–green, yellow–blue, and white–black. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 39, 37–44, 2014     

From softcopy to hardcopy on a desert island

A computer program is written that converts from a digital color image (driving the phosphors of a softcopy video display) to the areal dye densities for a halftone hardcopy device. The program is intended to be generic enough for acceptable color reproduction between a variety of devices without slavish attention to such factors as the phosphor and dye spectra. Only one parameter called “subtractiveness” is empirically adjustable depending on how much image darkening must be compensated. No particular theory is invoked, but the transformation between RGB inputs and CMY outputs is constrained to ensure (1) symmetry among the image planes; (2) no higher than third-degree polynomials; and (3) nominal correspondence of the eight extremal colors red, green, blue, cyan, magenta, yellow, white, and black. When tested on one set of devices, the program works well enough for the “desert islands” inhabited by most users.     

Hue,chroma, and lightness preference in Chinese adults: Age and gender differences

Recent studies have shown cultural differences in color preference. However, the color preference of people in China, which was found to have its own pattern, was yet to be studied in depth. The current study investigated color preference and the associated age and gender differences in an adult national sample (N = 1290) to provide a culture‐specific characteristic of color perception. Participants rated how much they liked each of 31 colors (four chroma‐lightness levels of red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, and purple, plus three achromatic colors). We found a unique saturated color preference pattern characterized by red, cyan, and blue being preferred the most and orange as the least preferred chromatic color. The “red preference” phenomenon was observed in Chinese adults. Light colors were preferred the most in terms of chroma‐lightness level, followed by saturated, muted, and dark colors. The results of a principal component analysis of the 28 chromatic colors showed that blue‐green‐like colors (cool colors) constituted the largest proportion of color preference. The preference for orange and several dark colors increased with age, while that for bluish colors, purple, yellow, white, black, and light colors decreased. In terms of gender, women liked cyan, white, pink, and light colors and disliked red, orange, and dark colors more than men did. Our findings provide new empirical evidence about the color preference of Chinese and may offer some insight into the study of color preference and lay the foundations for future theoretical and practical research.     

网络出版中文字背景色的优化

网络出版的阅读基于屏幕显示,不同于纸质出版,显示屏幕上呈现文字信息可不拘泥于白色背景。实验针对不同字体和字号的黑色文字,设计了亮白和红、黄、绿、蓝、品红、灰等不同色相的背景颜色,并在一定范围内改变其明亮度和彩度。视觉观测结果表明,因屏幕自发光的亮度很大,其最亮的白色并不适于黑色文字的显示,适合的白色背景是明亮度降低后的一定范围内的灰色。类似地,其他所实验的彩色,适于作为背景色的明度和彩度也都有一定的范围。就适于的范围大小比较而言,包括灰色在内,灰色、黄色、绿色和蓝色的明度范围明显大于红色和品红色;绿色、黄色和蓝色的彩度范围也明显大于红色和品红色,其中绿色的彩度范围尤为宽泛。     

A comparative analysis of the characteristics and images of costume colors in the traditional plays of Korea,China, and Japan

The purpose of this study was to analyze quantitatively the characteristics and images of costume colors in the traditional plays of Korea, China, and Japan. The study focused on the Korean Masque, Beijing Opera, and Kabuki costume colors based on a selection of 1135 color samples. The collected source data were selected by extracting digital color data by using the Eyedropper Tool of Photoshop 7.0. The RGB color data were transformed to H V/C and the attributes of hue and tone were analyzed. Color images were analyzed with the color image scales of IRI Color Design Institute and Shigenobu Kobayashi to increase the validity of the evaluated images. As a result, the “five element colors (red, yellow, purple–blue (PB), white, and black)” from the theory of “Yin‐Yang Wu‐Xing” were used in the common stage costume colors of the Korean Masque, Beijing Opera, and Kabuki. Red, a preferred Asian color, was used most frequently in the costumes of these three traditional plays. A comparison of the traditional stage costume colors in the three northeast Asian countries revealed a difference in tones rather than in hues. First, the Korean Masque frequently used white in accordance with the tradition of white‐clad people and the cultural view of colors in which natural colors were preferred. Additionally, in the Masque, Koreans used colors based on the theory of Yin‐Yang Wu‐Xing with high‐chroma tones. On the other hand, the Beijing Opera exhibited the gorgeous and strong color images of China, by adopting high‐chroma colors in the Five Element Color: R, Y, PB, white, and black. Last, in the Kabuki costumes, a variety of white, black, dull, light, dark, strong, vivid, deep, bright, and grayish tones played an important role in showing various color images. The costume color images of the traditional plays of the three countries revealed that all shared the use of dynamic, springy/casual, and gorgeous images in the strong contrast of five element colors. Regarding the differences, the Korean Masque exhibited natural images in favor of natural colors, whereas the Kabuki displayed modern, decent/formal images by using dull, dark, and grayish colors. The study results suggested that the three countries commonly used five element colors from the theory of Yin‐Yang Wu‐Xing, but that their color images differed in terms of the tones used and the techniques for color combination. These results reflect that colors in the traditional costumes of the three countries are affected by their cultural codes, thereby representing the characteristics ofcertain peoples and cultural circles. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2011     

Cross preferences for colors and shapes

Preferences for colors and geometric shapes vary considerably across individuals. Studies have demonstrated these variations in preference separately for colors and shapes, but the relationships between preference variations for colors and shapes are not yet known. By measuring individual preferences for basic colors and shapes, we found that color preferences and shape preferences were partly, but systematically, correlated. People who preferred some simple shapes (e.g., cone, pyramid) tended to prefer some light or warm colors (e.g., yellow, orange). In contrast, people who preferred some complex shapes (e.g., scrambled truncated‐pyramid, scrambled pyramid) tended to prefer some dark or cold colors (e.g., blue, blue‐green). That is, people who like “simple” or “complex” visual features might tend to like “light or warm” or “dark or cold” visual features. These results indicate that individual preferences for colors and shapes might not be independent, but could be correlated and intertwined to some extent. We suggest that the semantic information associated with colors and shapes underlies the cross preferences. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 41, 188–195, 2016     

Three are Not Enough: An INDSCAL Analysis Suggesting that Color Space Has Seven (£1) Dimensions

Forty-five subjects, including color normals, protanomalous, deuteranomalous, protanopes, and deuteranopes, judged dissimilarities of 26 Munsell color chips chosen to span the full color space (i.e., all three parameters—hue, saturation, and lightness—were varied). Each of the 325 pairs of colors was mounted on a standard grey background board. They were presented to subjects in different random orders and were viewed under a Macbeth daylight lamp. For each pair the subject circled a number varying from 0 (for “identical”) to 9 (for “maximally dissimilar”). Fifty data matrices obtained from 45 subjects (5 were from the same subject on different dates and 2 were from another subject) were analyzed by the INDSCAL method. The three-dimensional solution yielded the “standard” three dimensions (lightness, red-green, and yellow-blue) with the classical “color circle” emerging, in a slightly distorted form, in the plane of the second and third dimensions. Seven dimensions seemed necessary to account fully for these data, however. In seven dimensions each of the “standard” dimensions is paired with a “folded” version. Accompanying lightness is a “folded” lightness dimensions, which we have called “lightness contrast.” The light and dark colors are at one end, contrasted with medium colors at the other. Similarly, “folded” red-green roughly contrasts red and green with blue, yellow, and the greys, while “folded” yellow-blue contrasts blue and yellow with red, green, and the greys. The seventh dimension, which may be artifactual, was called “split yellow.” It contrasts very brilliant (high Munsell value and chroma) yellow and orange colors with all the other colors. It is speculated that some of these extra dimensions may relate to anomalous receptor processes characteristic of deviant subjects. The INDSCAL subject space enables discrimination among all five subject types. Specifically, one of the “natural planes” (the red-green versus “folded” yellow-blue plane) of the seven-dimensional solution can be divided into contiguous and fairly compact regions, with each subject type occupying a unique region.     

Tutorial on the importance of color in language and culture

This tutorial examines how people of various cultures classify different colors as belonging together under common color names. This is addressed by examining Berlin and Kay's (1969) hierarchical classification scheme. Special attention is paid to the additional five (derived) color terms (i.e., brown, purple, pink, orange, and gray) that must be added to Herings' six primaries (i.e., white, black, red, green, yellow, blue) to constitute Berlin and Kay's basic color terms. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Col Res Appl, 26, 179–192, 2001     

Colored apparel and its potential influence on heterosexual attraction

The objective of this study is to determine if men would follow the “red effect” when choosing colors for women to wear on a date, and also to determine if the colors that men would wear when going on a date would be the same as the colors that females (their date) would wish them to wear. A set of psychophysical data was generated from this experiment, where participants were asked to rank a set of 10 colored samples based on preference for each question asked. There were three different sets of colored samples. The set of colored samples given to the participant depended on the question. A total of five questions were asked. Scaling analysis was done on the data to organize a set of items according to preferences providing values, an interval scale (Z values), that correspond to the relative perceptual differences among the stimuli. The Z values were graphed to show the general preference of colors for women to wear, and the preference of colors for men to wear. A Spearman's rank-order correlation coefficient (SRCC) was calculated comparing each individual's rank order with the mean rank order for that specific question. An average Spearman's rank order was calculated for each question and each gender in order to determine the variability in answers. Scaling results indicate that men follow the “red effect,” but women preferred to wear other colors such as turquoise, blue, or yellow depending on the outfit. Males and females agreed that no matter the colored bottoms (denim or black), blue was the preferred color top for men to wear. SRCC results showed a lot of variability between individual answers and the mean answer indicating that participants' rankings did not necessarily agree with general color preferences presented in the scaling analysis. While scaling analysis might suggest certain color preferences such as men following the “red effect” and women preferring to wear blue, the poor correlation found using SRCC between the individual answers and the mean rank orders suggests that color preferences for each individual are inherently unique.     

Changes in hue and saturation of chromatic lights presented in the peripheral visual field

The perception of ten different colors on a CRT display presented across the horizontal meridian of the visual field were measured to determine the range of relevant test stimuli for color zone map measurement. Hue and saturation judgments were used based on the opponent‐colors theory. The changes of the unique hue components for eccentric displays of red, yellow, green, and blue fall within the distribution range of previous results obtained using monochromatic lights. Chromatic displays of nearly unique hues with high saturation would be significant as test colors for measurement for a color zone map. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 28, 413–424, 2003; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.10194     

Estimating black‐level emissions of computer‐controlled displays

It is quite common for computer‐controlled displays to emit light in image areas set to digital values of zero, referred to as their black level. This is expected for liquid–crystal displays and also can occur for cathode‐ray tube displays when the “brightness” (gun‐amplifier offset) is set excessively high. For either display, the light emission at the black level results in color channels whose chromaticities vary with luminance level. Consequently, typical methods of colorimetric characterization result in large error. When this black‐level emission is measured and accounted for suitably, characterization accuracy is dramatically improved. Unfortunately, many instruments used to measure displays have too low a sensitivity to measure black‐level emission with sufficient precision and accuracy. A method of estimating black‐level emissions was derived and tested. Because the optimal black‐level results in channel chromaticities that are invariant to the greatest extent with luminance level, an objective function was defined as the sum of chromaticity variances of each channel over a range of measurements. Minimizing this objective function resulted is an estimate of a display's black level. The estimated black level resulted in equivalent or superior performance to direct measurements. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 28, 379–383, 2003; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.10181     

第十六讲——电镀中一些交流电器的使用要求(二)

阐述了镀锌层钝化的重要性。总结了各种六价铬钝化工艺,包括高铬钝化、中铬钝化、低铬钝化、超低铬钝化、银白色钝化、低铬黑钝化、超低铬蓝白钝化。指出了六价铬深蓝色钝化、军绿色钝化和金黄色钝化的注意事项,以及三价铬钝化所存在的问题。钝化后作封闭处理可提高耐蚀性和结合力。烘干老化则是钝化必要的工序。     

Differences in color naming and color salience in Vietnamese and English

The accepted model of color naming postulates that 11 “basic” color terms representing 11 common perceptual experiences show increased processing salience due to a theorized linkage between perception, visual neurophysiology, and cognition. We tested this theory, originally proposed by Berlin and Kay in 1969. Experiment 1 tested salience by comparing unconstrained color naming across two languages, English and Vietnamese. Results were compared with previous research by Berlin and Kay, Boynton and Olson, and colleagues. Experiment 2 validated our stimuli by comparing OSA, Munsell, and newly rendered “basic” exemplars using colorimetry and behavioral measures. Our results show that the relationship between the visual and verbal domains is more complex than current theory acknowledges. An interpoint distance model of color‐naming behavior is proposed as an alternative perspective on color‐naming universality and color‐category structure. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 28, 113–138, 2003; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.10131     

Color and cyber‐attractiveness: Red enhances men's attraction to women's internet personal ads

Red is traditionally connected with love and sex. However, the effect of red on human behavior still remains in question. Women with Internet personal ads registered on a web meeting site displayed photographs with their upper clothes colored in red, black, white, yellow, blue, and green. The dependent variable was the number of contacts received from men. It was found that women's ads with red received significantly more contacts. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 38, 309–312, 2013     

Optimal display color for nighttime smartphone users

The study investigated the optimal display color for comfortable use of smartphones at night under low illuminance, while not distorting the perceived quality of displays. Two phases of psychophysical experiments were conducted to judge perceptibility and acceptability of the displays in various shades of white. The experimental results showed that the scores in acceptability were always higher than those in perceptibility all across the hues, and yellow received the highest scores in acceptability among the six hue categories. This can be interpreted that the observers have the intention of using a display in a yellow shade of white even though it is not perceived as pure white. Through the analysis, a white in yellow shade with the RGB values of 255, 255, and 230 was determined as the optimal display color for nighttime smartphone users regardless of display luminance or contents. The proposed display color supports physiological comfort by reducing the blue light, which involves an adverse effect on the biological system, and provides psychological satisfaction by allowing users to decide the color within the range of the user's acceptable threshold. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 42, 60–67, 2017     

Color identification data obtained from photopic to mesopic illuminance levels

To use colors properly as an aid in visual tasks, it is necessary to know how colors are identified under various illuminating environments. In this study color identification was examined under a wide range of illuminances, from photopic to mesopic levels. Fifteen subjects named a color chip using one of the preselected color terms: red, orange, yellow, yellow‐green, green, blue‐green, blue, purple, pink, brown, white, gray, and black. The 256 color chips were selected from value planes of 4, 6, and 8 of the Munsell color space. The illuminance levels tested were 1000, 10, 1, and 0.1 lx. At 1000 lx the color chips were identified consistently by each of the color terms. At 10 lx the pattern of color identification was very similar to that at 1000 lx, though the consistency of the identification evidently declined. At 1 lx great changes in color identification occurred. By 0.1 lx reliable color identification was completely lost, though blue and red responses remained. At the lower illuminances green was replaced with blue, and red, orange, and pink were frequently confused with each other. However, the border between blue and purple was almost constant. These results provide a scientific basis for the appropriate use of colors in various illuminating environments. Also, they are useful for studies in color appearance modeling. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 27, 252–259, 2002; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.10065     

Color and women hitchhikers' attractiveness: Gentlemen drivers prefer red

Research has shown that with some nonhuman primates, red is associated with greater sexual attractiveness of females. Five female confederates in their early 20s posed as hitchhikers wearing T‐shirts of different colors (black, white, red, blue, green, or yellow). It was found that the women wearing red solicited a higher response in the number of male drivers who stopped to offer a ride. No color effect was found when considering the behavior of female drivers. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2012     

镀锌钝化概述

阐述了镀锌层钝化的重要性.总结了各种六价铬钝化工艺,包括高铬钝化、中铬钝化、低铬钝化、超低铬钝化,银白色钝化、低铬黑钝化、超低铬蓝白钝化.指出了六价铬深蓝色钝化、军绿色钝化和金黄色钝化的注意事项,以及三价铬钝化所存在的问题.钝化后作封闭处理可提高耐蚀性和结合力.烘干老化则是钝化必要的工序.