Steady‐state heat flux measurements in radiative and mixed radiative–convective environments

The steady‐state responses of four heat flux gauges (Schmidt–Boelter, Gardon, directional flame thermometer (DFT) and hemispherical heat flux gauge (HFG)) were examined under various radiative and convective heating conditions. In radiative environments, Gardon measurements were up to 8% higher than Schmidt–Boelter measurements, but in mixed radiative–convective environments, Gardon measurements were 8–18% below those of the Schmidt–Boelter gauge. This difference increased as the convective portion of the total heat transfer increased, due to discrepancies between the radiation‐based calibration environment and the application environment. The DFT data in radiative environments were comparable with the Schmidt–Boelter and Gardon values (within 12%), with the difference largely attributed to natural convection losses from the DFT. In mixed environments, the DFT values were significantly lower than those of the Schmidt–Boelter gauge due to differences in the surface temperatures of the gauges, resulting in the convective flow cooling, rather than heating, the DFT. The HFG heat flux estimates were 35–48% lower than the Schmidt–Boelter measurements under radiative conditions, influenced by large conduction losses from the sensor plate to the gauge housing. Lateral conduction due to a mismatch between the experimental convective flow outlet diameter and the gauge width also affected results from the DFT and HFG. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

被动式直接甲醇燃料电池内部温度和热通量的同步在线测量

为了深入研究燃料电池内部传热传质之间的关系,以自制的薄膜传感器为测量单元,实现了燃料电池内部温度和热通量的同步在线测量。实验结果表明自制的薄膜传感器可以测量膜电极表面的瞬态变化,且传感器对电池性能的影响较小;同步测量的数据显示,放电过程中温度的动态响应要迟于热流的动态响应,由于膜电极热导率的变化以及甲醇窜流的影响,相对于温度的阶跃变化,热通量呈现持续变化的趋势。     

恒热流工况下管内对流换热(火用)传递特性

从管内传热与流动的特点出发,基于热力学第一、第二定律和非平衡热力学理论,对壁面恒热流工况下,管内充分发展段对流换热的火用传递过程进行了研究,定义了对流换热传火用系数、火用流密度、传火用Nusselt数和对流换热火用传递方程,并导出相应的计算式;讨论了Reynolds数、量纲1热通量和不同截面位置等参数对对流换热火用传递过程的影响;最后将传火用和传热的结果进行了比较.     

换热网络的热流均匀性因子

提出并建立了能够评价换热网络换热效能的热流均匀性因子,在两个条件下对该因子进行验证和分析。首先,在相同结构上保持换热器单元总面积之和不变的条件下模拟计算,考察热流均匀性因子与总换热量之间的对应关系,并与温差均匀性因子进行比较;其次,在改变换热网络结构的条件下优化计算,考察各优化结构的热流均匀性因子与总换热量之间的对应关系。通过两个具体的换热网络实例验证该因子,结果表明：热流均匀性因子越小则对应的换热网络总体换热效能越好。由此说明本研究建立的换热网络的热流均匀性因子能够从总体上反应换热网络的换热效能,能够作为其换热效能的一种新的评价指标,并能为换热网络的综合及优化提供新的思路。     

高热通量水平管外池沸腾传热

在制冷空调的满液式蒸发器中,制冷剂在壳侧沸腾蒸发,管内为水的单相对流传热。实验研究了高热通量下R134a在一根光管和一根强化管（No.1）外的池沸腾传热,并将光管实验结果和Cooper公式进行了比较。在不同的饱和温度下,热通量10～250 kW·m^-2的范围内,研究了R134a在光管和强化管外的沸腾传热系数随热通量的变化关系。光管和强化管外径分别为15.93 mm 和 25.36 mm。通过研究发现,在热通量10～250 kW·m^-2的范围内,光管的池沸腾传热系数和Cooper公式符合较好,偏差小于±15%。在双对数坐标下传热系数和热通量实验结果拟合直线斜率为0.67。在较高热通量,即热通量大于250 kW·m^-2时,光管的传热系数相对Cooper公式偏差开始增大。对于高效管,在小于40 kW·m^-2热通量下的传热效果最好。强化管的强化倍率随热通量增加一直减小,在较高热通量250 kW·m^-2下,强化管的传热系数和光管相同,甚至比光管小。     

用于高热通量电子散热的平板环路重力热管

为解决高热通量电子设备散热问题,设计一套蒸发器上下表面由多个方柱相连的平板型环路重力热管（LGHP）。通过实验研究其换热性能,包括在不同加热功率下平板热管的传热特性及均温特性,以及蒸发器摆放方式和不同种工质对平板热管传热性能的影响。实验结果表明,环路热管工质采用R134a的工作性能比R600a好,平板竖直放置比水平放置好。采用R134a且竖直放置时,其临界热通量（CHF）可达212.3 kW/m²,对应传热系数为16.2 kW/（m²·K）。该平板换热器可以保证电子设备工作温度不超过60℃,且运行过程中平板蒸发器与热源接触的壁面各测点间除出口处外温度差值小于5℃,均温性能优异。     

Uniform flux heat transfer in concentric laminar flow of two immiscible liquids

The energy equation was solved exactly for fully developed steady laminar flow in a circular pipe of two immncible Newton liquids with a concentric cylindrical interface between them, assuming invariant physical properties of the liquids, uniform heat flux at the wall and fully developed temperature profiles. It is shown that, even if the viscosity of the annular liquid is orders of magnitude smaller than that of the core liquid, the improvement in heat transfer to the core liquid by infection of the annular liquid cannot exceed a factor of 1 8     

Radiative heat exchange modeling inside an oven

The 3D nongray radiative heat exchange in a near-infrared commercial oven is modeled. The spectrum is divided into into four gray bands to model the narrow wavelength range in which the halogen heat source radiates, the wavelength dependence of the food surface emittance, and the absorption coefficient of the heat source cover glass. The model is used to estimate the heating of a cuboidal food sample for 1 min at different cyclic settings of a halogen radiant heat source. The model predictions agree with the experimental data, and capture the cover-glass and the food-surface temperature and heat flux histories very well. The band-wise distribution of energy absorption by the food reveals the separate contributions from the source and the oven walls. Comparison of the heating rates between the measured non-gray food-surface and the different gray food-surface emittance values establishes the necessity of the nongray treatment. © 2009 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 2009     

非均匀热流边界条件下螺旋管内流动传热的场协同分析

建立了螺旋管内流动换热的物理数学模型,对均匀和非均匀热流边界条件下螺旋管内湍流传热进行了数值模拟。结果表明：当对螺旋管表面施加相同的加热功率时,均匀热流边界条件下湍流传热系数高于非均匀热流边界条件下的湍流传热系数,且均匀热流边界条件下螺旋管内的场协同角低于非均匀热流边界条件;非均匀热流边界条件时,在相同的De下,曲率较小的螺旋管传热系数大,且曲率较小的螺旋管内场协同角较小;同时,随着管径的增大,螺旋管内的传热系数也随之下降,但螺旋管内的场协同角随之增大。     

Radiative heat transfer in circulating fluidized bed furnaces

Three methods of estimating the effective emissivity of a gas-particle suspension are compared and the radiative heat transfer coefficient of an isothermal suspension is defined. Heat flux measurements obtained from circulating fluidized bed combustors are examined. Radiation from a particle suspension with core temperature dominates the radiative heat transfer in the upper part of the furnace, where the particle density is low and no substantial particle boundary layers are formed. Over the lower parts of the heat transfer surfaces, where significant thermal and particle boundary layers are present, the radiative heat flux is dominated by emission from the relatively low temperature particle layer in the vicinity of the heat receiving surface.     

高热流密度电子元件中热管散热技术的进展

散热器的散热性能是影响电子元件使用寿命与安全性的重要因素,热管以其空间尺寸小、冷却能力高、无需消耗动力等优点在高热流密度元件的散热技术领域得到广泛应用.文中总结了热管散热器整体结构设计的创新尤其是热管的不同排布和组合,研究了热管元件性能的提高包括热管内部吸液芯的改进、复杂结构吸液芯的制造,分析了纳米流体工质的引入对换热效果的强化,介绍了散热器热性能分析和参数优化的相关方法.通过分析总结国内外研究成果,提出了新概念热管散热器的结构设计、纳米流体理论模型及复合吸液芯的加工制造等方面的发展趋势与展望.     

定热流边界下重力作用PCM熔化过程规律

为提升相变储热单元的相变材料(PCM)熔化速率,本文定义基于热源输入方向与重力方向的通用坐标,建立可视化实验装置与数学模型,探究定热流边界下夹角γ对方腔内PCM熔化的作用规律。结果表明,当夹角γ从0°增加到180°时,PCM熔化时间先增加后减少,最后轻微上升。当夹角γ为0°时,PCM以纯导热完成熔化;夹角为15°时,对应的熔化时间最长,相对纯导热过程增加了40.32%;夹角为120°时,对应的熔化时间最短,相对纯导热过程减少了63.11%。当夹角较小时,自然对流对PCM的整体熔化过程有抑制作用,只有在夹角大于一定数值时,自然对流才能促进PCM的熔化过程。此外,多工况下获取的最优夹角γ均在90°～180°,且相对更趋近90°。所以在实际工程应用中,规整相变储热单元的热源端最低点应该低于PCM端最低点。     

临界热流的数值模拟

建立了以加热板为计算域的核沸腾瞬态数值模型,以沸腾表面局部换热为边界条件,对多种工质在不同压力条件下的控制方程、边界条件和计算过程进行了量纲1化处理,并考虑了由核心随机分布产生的气泡重叠效应.数值研究包括模拟整个核沸腾曲线和临界热流（CHF）.研究结果表明平均瞬态活化核心间距和气泡覆盖率可以作为沸腾到达CHF的判据.数值模拟的CHF与表面粗糙度无关,而与饱和压力有关,这与Kutateladze和Zuber等的关系式的结果相符合.     

微肋阵通道内流动沸腾CHF特性

以去离子水为工质,在质量流速G为96～224 kg·m^-2·s^-1,入口过冷度为20～50℃,有效热通量为10～240 W·cm^-2的范围内,对圆形、菱形、椭圆形微肋阵通道内流动沸腾临界热通量（critical heat flux,CHF）特性进行了实验研究。临界热通量是通道出口壁面干涸造成的,而出口壁面的干涸是由于流动沸腾向通道上游的反向流动。出口壁温的剧增和两相压降的剧减标志着CHF的发生。此外研究发现质量流速、入口过冷度、微肋形状等实验参数对CHF也有着很大的影响。实验结果表明：在相同的实验工况条件下,微肋片的存在大大减小了沸腾的反向流动和流动沸腾的不稳定性,微肋阵通道的CHF比光滑微通道更高,且椭圆形微肋阵的CHF最大,菱形微肋阵次之,圆形微肋阵最小;CHF随着质量流速和入口过冷度的增大而增大,但随着出口干度的增大而减小。最后将实验数据文献中的关联式进行了比较验证,结果表明该实验数据与关联式吻合良好。     

A guide to characterizing heat release rate measurement uncertainty for full‐scale fire tests

Accurate heat release rate measurements provide essential information to defining the fire safety characteristics of products. The size, complexity, and cost of full‐scale fire tests make achieving accurate and quantitative results a serious challenge. A detailed uncertainty analysis of a large‐scale heat release rate measurement facility is presented as a guide to the process of estimating the uncertainty of similar facilities. Quantitative heat release rate measurements of full‐scale fires up to 2.7 MW were conducted using the principle of oxygen consumption calorimetry. Uncertainty estimates were also computed for the heat input measurements from a well‐controlled natural gas burner. The measurements of heat input and heat release rate were performed independently, and the discrepancy between the two was well within the uncertainty limits. The propagation of uncertainty was performed at the level of voltage and temperature measurements, which avoided using mutually dependent measurement parameters. Reasons for the significant contribution to the combined uncertainty from the oxygen concentration and exhaust flow measurements are demonstrated. Also presented is a first‐order effort to account for the uncertainty due to factors in full‐scale fire tests such as operator error and environmental influences that are not modeled by the heat release rate equation. Published in 2008 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

太阳辐射得热量测试台测量不确定度和误差分析

一切测量结果都具有不确定度及误差。本文通过对太阳辐射得热量测试台进行不确定度和误差分析,得到各个参数的不确定度及测量参数对测试结果的影响程度,其中风机盘管换热量的不确定度最大,而风机盘管进出口水温对测试结果误差影响最大。分析结果表明：整个测试台95%的测试误差在7.6%以内,最大测试误差约为110 W,测试台能满足测试精度要求。     

Bypass control of heat exchanger network under uncertainty

The dynamic control of the heat exchanger network is important for developing energy-efficient and safe industrial processes. In such a system, the control is achieved through the bypass stream around the heat exchanger. This work aims to track the setpoint temperature of the mixed stream by manipulating the bypass fraction of the cold stream around the heat exchanger. The implemented control is in a non-linear model predictive control (NMPC) framework. The first-principles model of a shell and a tube heat exchanger is used. The orthogonal collocation technique is used to discretize the first-principles model into the system of algebraic equations. In this work, uncertainty is also considered in the inlet temperature of the hot stream. The uncertain optimal control problem is dealt with by using a scenario tree-based approximation along with the affine policy-based method. The results show that, under different scenarios of uncertainty, the controlled variable efficiently tracks the setpoint. In comparison, considering the same scenarios of uncertainty used, the deterministic optimization approach shows significant deviation in the controlled variable from the setpoint as time passes.     

复合中空热管冷凝侧传热特性

复合中空热管能够有效解决普通重力热管换热设备的酸露点腐蚀问题,在回收低温烟气（<200℃）余热领域有重要的应用。建立了复合中空热管传热实验平台,对复合中空热管冷凝侧传热特性进行了实验研究。实验所用热管管长1080mm,不锈钢材质,工作介质为甲醇;热管蒸发侧和冷凝侧分别采用电加热和水冷却方式,K型热电偶被用于测量管壁温度和冷却水进出口温度,真空压力传感器测量管内蒸气饱和压力;研究了充液率（15%≤V+≤40%）和蒸发侧热流密度（9.48kW/m2≤q≤37.91kW/m2）对冷凝侧传热特性的影响。结果表明：当充液率为20%时,复合中空热管冷凝侧均温性能最好,冷凝侧换热系数最大,传热性能最佳;随着蒸发侧热流密度的增大,复合中空热管有效冷凝长度增大,冷凝侧换热系数增大。实验研究为工业应用提供了基础。     

Local temperature and wall radiant heat flux measurements in an industrial scale coal fired boiler

This paper reports measurements of local gas temperatures and wall incident radiant heat flux in an 80 MW_e pulverized coal corner fired boiler. Spatially resolved gas temperatures were measured using a 4 m long, triply-shielded suction pyrometer and total wall radiation was determined with an ellipsoidal radiometer. The data include detailed wall radiant heat flux measurements made around the periphery of the boiler at six different elevations. Local gas temperature profiles were measured at four axial positions in the boiler, with special attention to the near-burner region. Boiler operational data and coal proximate, ultimate and particle size analyses are also reported. Local gas temperatures in the boiler reached a maximum of nearly 1800 K near the burners and decayed to 1250 K at a position just above the boiler nose. In the burner plane gas temperatures varied from 600 K near the wall to 1800 K at the centre of the flame. Wall incident radiant heat fluxes varied between 440 kW m^{− 2} in the near-burner region to 100 kW m^{− 2} near the boiler nose. The radiation transport to the wall was observed to vary substantially around the periphery of the boiler, especially in the near-burner regions.     

微通道临界热通量的基础理论与提升技术研究进展

临界热通量（CHF）是微通道流动沸腾换热的限制参数之一,当热通量大于CHF时,换热性能急剧恶化,换热设备易发生烧毁与故障,因此CHF对于微通道换热的安全运行具有重要影响。微通道换热是目前电子冷却的主流技术,然而近年来电子设备热通量不断提高,CHF已成为限制微通道应用的关键参数之一。针对微通道CHF的研究进展,详细阐述微通道CHF的形成机理,分析工况参数和通道尺寸对微通道CHF的影响机制,总结微通道CHF的预测模型,详述微通道CHF提升的各类技术方法与原理,探讨学术界观点差异和今后研究方向。该综述为微通道在高热通量条件下安全可靠运行提供了研究借鉴。