Effect of irrigation on a deep aquifer: a case study from the semi-arid Harran Plain,GAP Project,Turkey

Inappropriate irrigation practices are responsible for the deterioration of groundwater quality in a great number of developing countries, particularly in semi-arid and arid regions. The study was undertaken to determine the variation in groundwater quality of a deep aquifer after surface irrigation was started in the semi-arid Harran Plain, southeast Turkey. Physical and chemical parameters of the groundwater, including pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate, sulphate and nitrate, were determined on a monthly basis from November 2008 to July 2009. The quality of the deep aquifer was assessed hydrochemically in order to determine its suitability for human consumption and agricultural purposes. With the exception of two wells, the measured and analyzed parameters in all the groundwater samples were below the internationally accepted maximum concentrations for human consumption and for agricultural purposes. The study identified a local contamination as a consequence of excess irrigation, high evaporation rates and drainage. It is hoped that the results will assist planners in the proper design and control of irrigation schemes to avoid further deterioration of these important aquifers.     

The impact of wastewater irrigation on the chemical quality of groundwater

The purpose of this investigation was to assess the groundwater impact of irrigation with industrial wastewater (baker's yeast wastewater, BYW) and to determine if agricultural reuse can be considered as an efficient wastewater treatment method. The impact of the irrigation and the status of the groundwater quality were determined using chemical parameters that are typical contaminants of BYW and characterise the content of total suspended solids (TSSs), organic matter (biochemical and chemical oxygen demands), nutrients (N_org, N‐NH₄, N‐NO₃, N_total, P_total and K), salts (Cl, SO₄ and Na) and pH. The study revealed that BYW irrigation did not cause a significant increase in the content of these parameters in groundwater at a low water table region (WTR). However, at a high WTR, the irrigation had an extremely significant (P < 0.001) impact on the chemical status of groundwater that has been demonstrated by substantially high values of COD, N‐NH₄, Cl, SO₄ and Na.     

Land Lost from Agriculture: a Dubious Basis for Rural Policy

This paper raises doubts about the extent to which productive agricultural land and prime agricultural land have been lost from agriculture in New South Wales, through the development of hobby farms. It also questions the effects of instruments which have been used generally to control the subdivisions which have been seen as putative causes of perceived losses. It concludes that there is a need for better data to enable changes in rural land use to be monitored more precisely.     

Subsurface water quality and quantity from the standpoint of irrigation and livestock

Field studies were undertaken at the Oyo North Agricultural Development Project (ONADEP), Shaki, Nigeria in 1988 and 1989 to evaluate the reliability and quality of subsurface water sources in relation to irrigation and livestock usage. Based on data from 22 water samples, 15 soil types, seasonal consumption of water for 10 major crops and extensive hydrogeological records, it was established that (i) alkalinity and salinity hazards are low, hence the groundwater of the study area is suitable for irrigation, (ii) excessive boron levels might restrict the usage of the groundwater of the study area for livestock, (iii) subsurface water sources, estimated at about 31,000 ML per annum is capable of satisfying only 12% of agricultural and livestock water demand of the study area, and (iv) the area under consideration is not endowed with abundant surface and subsurface water as shown by previous studies.     

Application of multiple geochemical indicators, including the stable isotopes of water, to differentiate water quality evolution in a region influenced by various agricultural practices and domestic wastewater treatment and disposal

Spatial and temporal variations in groundwater chemistry indicate that the use of low TDS lake water for irrigation, on land located just south of the City of Dixon, Solano County, California, is primarily responsible for improving groundwater quality with regards to salts. The stable isotopes of water further support this finding and suggest that TDS concentrations decrease as groundwater evolves to a more highly evaporated state. This seemingly contradictory finding was primarily attributed to infiltration of low TDS Lake Berryessa surface water, which has an isotopic signature indicative of an evaporated source and is used extensively for irrigation in the area, mixing with poorer quality locally recharged shallow groundwater. Geochemical modeling using the program PHREEQC further supports the anthropogenic aquifer freshening hypotheses through computed reductions in the saturation state of carbonate minerals in the vicinity of land irrigated by lake derived water, which is undersaturated with regards to modeled carbonates. Additionally, delta(18)O and delta(2)H were found to be useful in estimating climatic variables such as temperature and humidity, illustrating the potential for applying these models in hydrologic investigations within the area. It was however found that USDA NRCS soils data and measured water chemistry were not well correlated and thus the use of soils classifications to assess potential groundwater quality impacts was of limited utility.     

A pristine environment and water quality in perspective: Maliau Basin, Borneo's mysterious world

The chemical characteristics of the surface water of Eucalyptus River, in Maliau Basin, were studied based on its major ion chemistry and its suitability for drinking, domestic use and irrigation. Water samples from the river were collected and analysed for pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, Cl, SO₄, Ca, Mg, Na and K. Besides major elements, Cu, Zn, Ni, Co, Fe, Mn, Cr, Bi, Cd, Ba, Pb, As, Al, V, Se, Ag, Sr and Li were also determined in this study. The results show that the river water of the area reflects natural factors and is regarded as fresh water and suitable for drinking and domestic use. The calculated values of sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), Mg hazard and salinity hazard indicate that the river water is of high quality and suitable for agricultural and irrigation purposes. This study contributes baseline data for a pristine, forested environment for future reference.     

邯郸市地下水埋深变化及其影响因素定量分析

地下水是邯郸市的主要水源,探究地下水埋深变化及其影响因素对合理开发和保护地下水资源具有重要意义。文章基于2006—2015年邯郸市地下水观测数据,获得地下水埋深变化空间分布特征,并运用地理探测器定量分析自然因素(高程、坡度、坡向、土壤类型、降水量变化和土壤质地类型)和社会经济因素(土地利用与土地覆盖类型、GDP、人口、农业用水量变化、工业用水量变化和生活用水量变化)对邯郸市整体、邯郸市平原区和山区的地下水位变化的影响。结果表明,就邯郸市整体而言,对地下水变化解释力较大的是高程、土地利用与土地覆盖类型、农业用水变化和生活用水变化;平原区与山区的各因子解释力差别较大,平原区的主要影响因子为工业用水变化和降水量变化,而山区为土地利用与土地覆盖类型。     

Impact of geochemical stressors on shallow groundwater quality

Groundwater monitoring wells (about 70 wells) were extensively installed in 28 sites surrounding Lake Texoma, located on the border of Oklahoma and Texas, to assess the impact of geochemical stressors to shallow groundwater quality. The monitoring wells were classified into three groups (residential area, agricultural area, and oil field area) depending on their land uses. During a 2-year period from 1999 to 2001 the monitoring wells were sampled every 3 months on a seasonal basis. Water quality assay consisted of 25 parameters including field parameters, nutrients, major ions, and trace elements. Occurrence and level of inorganics in groundwater samples were related to the land use and temporal change. Groundwater of the agricultural area showed lower levels of ferrous iron and nitrate than the residential area. The summer season data revealed more distinct differences in inorganic profiles of the two land use groundwater samples. There is a possible trend that nitrate concentrations in groundwater increased as the proportions of cultivated area increased. Water-soluble ferrous iron occurred primarily in water samples with a low dissolved oxygen concentration and/or a negative redox potential. The presence of brine waste in shallow groundwater was detected by chloride and conductivity in oil field area. Dissolved trace metals and volatile organic carbons were not in a form of concentration to be stressors. This study showed that the quality of shallow ground water could be related to regional geochemical stressors surrounding the lake.     

Effect of Khirbet As-Samra treated effluent on the quality of irrigation water in the Central Jordan Valley

Khirbet As-Samra (KA) treated wastewater is being used in irrigation in the Central Jordan Valley. The treated water is collected in King Talal Dam (KTD) and then mixed with King Abdullah Canal (KAC) water, which is diverted from the Yarmouk River for further use in agriculture. The treated water has adversely affected the water quality of Yarmouk River. Comparison of the results of water quality tests with guidelines for water to be used for irrigation, salt tolerance of agricultural crops and the influence of water quality on the potential clogging of drip irrigation systems reveals that treated effluent from KA can be used for irrigation with restrictions. Moreover, concentrations of all trace elements were found to be low and within guidelines for irrigation water. Clogging of drip emitters is expected due to high calcium and magnesium contents, besides the high bacterial counts and nutrients that promote algal growth.     

The groundwater responses to loess flowslides in the Heifangtai platform

Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment - Due to the large area of agricultural irrigation on the Chinese Loess Plateau, the groundwater table has been significantly raised, resulting...     

The potential of pesticides to contaminate the groundwater resources of the Axios river basin in Macedonia, Northern Greece. Part I. Monitoring study in the north part of the basin

The Axios river basin is an area of high agricultural importance for Macedonia, Northern Greece. High priced crops such as cotton, corn, sugarbeets, vegetables and rice are rotated with cereals and alfalfa and thus a great variety of pesticides are used annually for the control of pests and diseases. Moreover, the groundwater resources of the specific area constitute the main source of potable water for the surrounding cities and villages. Therefore, a study was initiated to investigate the probable risks of groundwater contamination with pesticides. The leaching of pesticides from agricultural soils was monitored in the phreatic horizon as well as in soil water samples collected with suction lysimeters. In parallel studies, the presence of pesticides in the irrigation water and the water of Axios river was also monitored. Pesticides like carbofuran, atrazine, alachlor and prometryne, which were regularly applied in the northern part of the basin during 1992-1994 were detected at concentrations occasionally exceeding 1 microg/l in soil water from the deeper soil layers and in the phreatic horizon. Residues of pesticides others than the ones applied in the studied area like propanil, terbufos and paraoxon-methyl were also detected at the deeper soil layers and in the phreatic horizon. The latter pesticides were also detected at significant concentrations in the irrigation water which mainly consisted of riverine water. The lack of an independent soil draining system and the use of riverine water for irrigation purposes resulted in the redistribution of residual amounts of these pesticides in the phreatic horizon beneath the agricultural area.     

Hydrochemical characteristics and water quality assessment of surface water and groundwater in Songnen plain, Northeast China

Water quality is the critical factor that influence on human health and quantity and quality of grain production in semi-humid and semi-arid area. Songnen plain is one of the grain bases in China, as well as one of the three major distribution regions of soda saline-alkali soil in the world. To assess the water quality, surface water and groundwater were sampled and analyzed by fuzzy membership analysis and multivariate statistics. The surface water were gather into class I, IV and V, while groundwater were grouped as class I, II, III and V by fuzzy membership analysis. The water samples were grouped into four categories according to irrigation water quality assessment diagrams of USDA. Most water samples distributed in category C1-S1, C2-S2 and C3-S3. Three groups were generated from hierarchical cluster analysis. Four principal components were extracted from principal component analysis. The indicators to water quality assessment were Na, HCO₃, NO₃, Fe, Mn and EC from principal component analysis. We conclude that surface water and shallow groundwater are suitable for irrigation, the reservoir and deep groundwater in upstream are the resources for drinking. The water for drinking should remove of the naturally occurring ions of Fe and Mn. The control of sodium and salinity hazard is required for irrigation. The integrated management of surface water and groundwater for drinking and irrigation is to solve the water issues.     

Potential for wastewater reuse in irrigation: case study from Aden (Yemen)

Wastewater treatment with waste stabilization ponds (WSP) is a very efficient, low cost and low maintenance operation. The treated wastewater from WSP should be considered as a valuable resource for reuse by water resources managers. Yemen’s water resources are currently experiencing a crisis, because all surface water and groundwater resources are exploited beyond the level of recharge. Promoting water reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation could mitigate this water crisis. This paper assesses the performance of a WSP in the city of Aden by examining the quality of treated sewage predominantly of domestic origin. A comparison with international guidelines reveals that it is possible to use the final effluent to a limited extent in irrigation. This paper includes an outline of the social, religious and political reasons for the water crisis, and explores the idea of reuse of effluent for different irrigation practices.     

Multi-stage sampling and testing of groundwater — a pre-requisite for maximum utilization of aquifer systems

Since 1964 the writer has developed a series of new devices, instruments, techniques and methods especially for multilayered aquifers. (These have since been adapted for use in general groundwater investigations).A multistage sampler capable of pumping water from any required depth in a small diameter bore produces samples unaffected by contact with air, metals, or by change in temperature and pressure. A bank of iron-selective electrodes linked in series with the sampler enables continuous reading of pH, eH and other physical, chemical and biochemical parameters. The equipment demonstrated the existence of compositional stratification within typical common aquifers.The discharge-recharge principle which utilizes natural head differences between the different layers of an aquifer as an energy source, and controlled flow through specially designed orifices, enables aquifer parameters to be determined in both discharging and recharging layers at minimal cost. The addition of a gravity spray aerator to the construction permits subterranean groundwater treatment to remove iron, manganese and even organic pollutants.The subterranean groundwater treatment techniques and the in situ groundwater sampling and quality testing were acknowledged as the most appropriate health related invention of 1979 and 1980 by the World Health Organization (Geneva, 1980).     

Distribution of soil moisture and salinity in shelterbelts and its relationship with groundwater level in extreme arid area,northwest of China

Because of the shortage of water source in the extreme arid area, generally, there are several years of no irrigation on mature shelterbelts. In this study, the shelterbelt soil in different texture were compared based on distribution analysis of the soil moisture and salt levels of shelterbelts under large‐scale drip irrigation in Kalamiji Oasis in the lower reaches of Tarim River, Northwest China. The following conclusions were drawn. (1) In Kalamiji Oasis, the groundwater level declined at a rate of 0.5 m/a as a result of popularization of drip irrigation technology. (2) There was a larger heterogeneity in distribution for soil moisture in the sandy/loamy shelterbelt than in the clay shelterbelt. (3) Under non‐irrigation conditions, sandy/loamy shelterbelt has lower soil moisture and salinity, and clay shelterbelt has higher soil moisture and salinity. (4) The shelterbelt with the shallowest groundwater depth had highest soil moisture level, and the shelterbelt with the deepest groundwater level had the lowest soil moisture content. (5) In sandy and loamy shelterbelts, the shelterbelts with the shallowest groundwater depths had the lower salinity levels and the shelterbelts with the deepest groundwater depths had the highest salinity levels. (6) In clay shelterbelts, the shelterbelts with the shallowest groundwater depths had the highest salinity levels, and the shelterbelts with the deepest groundwater depths had the lowest salinity levels. Additionally, it is essential to implement irrigation at least once a year.     

Traditional irrigation and its importance to the tourist landscape of Valais, Switzerland

The contemporary landscape of the Central and Haut Valais, Switzerland, is partially a product of the ancient but extant bisse irrigation system. The current principal conduit network extends for approximately 760 kilometres, whilst the distribution network stretches for over 25 000 kilometres. Both systems have had a major impact on the Valaisan landscape. Besides this, traditional distribution techniques (ruissellement) have also altered dramatically the landscape of specific locations in the Valais. The contribution of bisses to the local milieu has been recognized by the federal, cantonal and communal governments. All three levels of government have provided incentives to farmers and local irrigation institutions to conserve traditional farming practices where appropriate and protect traditional methods of irrigation. This paper describes the landscape impact of traditional and modern irrigation practices and the instruments available for protecting these practices. It also appraises the success of these interventions and examines what future role bisses might play in protecting the current agricultural landscape, which has become so crucial to the success of summer tourism.     

A review of ET measurement techniques for estimating the water requirements of urban landscape vegetation

Increasing urbanisation combined with population growth places greater demands on dwindling water supplies. This is especially the case in arid and semi-arid areas like Australia, which is known as the driest inhabited continent on earth. Sustainable irrigation management necessitates better understanding of water requirements in order to decrease environmental risks and increase water use efficiency. Although the water requirements of agricultural crops are well established in field and laboratory studies, little research has been conducted to investigate the water requirements of urban green spaces. In addition, most previous research investigations have focused on the water requirements of turf grasses and not on other landscape plant species. Landscape plants can include various species of trees, shrubs and turf grasses with different planting densities and microclimates. Such complicated environments make measuring the water requirements of urban landscapes difficult.

This paper reviews previous studies and techniques for measuring the water requirements of urban landscapes and describes how optimum irrigation management strategies for urban landscape vegetation can assist in better water conservation, improved landscape quality and reduced water costs. The authors conclude that WUCOLS is a practical approach that can provide an initial estimate of urban landscape water demand but ideally this should be further refined based on the health and aesthetic condition of the urban vegetation. The authors recommend calibration of the WUCOLS estimates with an in-situ method such as a soil water balance.     

A chemical profile of recycled irrigation water in North-East Israel

The use of recycled water for irrigation purposes in agriculture is probably the most effective response to the scarcity of water resources in Israel.Base-line studies of the quality of recycled irrigation water in the Beith Alpha basin (more than 1.2 million cubic meters of recycled water) have been carried out recently.The pH, conductivity and the concentration of the ions K⁺, Na⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, PO₄^3?, NO₃^? and Cl^? have been determined. Relationships have been established between the concentrations determined, the conductivity and the sodium adsorption ratio (S.A.R.), these being the well-established criteria for irrigation water quality.Both the chloride content and the conductivity have been demonstrated to be far above the permitted standards for irrigation water in agriculture. Similarly, the S.A.R. was found to be approaching the “red line”.Clearly, these findings reflect the man-made changes in the natural level and distribution of chemical elements in the environment studied.This study should be considered not only as an illustrative case study for the crucial importance of on-going control and assessment of man-made systems in relation to environmental consequences, but also as scientific evidence that the re-use of untreated recycled water for flood-irrigation has its long-term environmental “trade offs”.     

Ag-PIE: a GIS-based screening model for assessing agricultural pressures and impacts on water quality on a European scale

Diffuse pollution of water resources from agricultural sources is a major environmental issue in the European Union, and has been dealt with by specific legislation: the Nitrate Directive of 1991 and the Water Framework Directive of 2000. These attempts to provide a coordinated approach to solving environmental problems require methods and tools for spatial analysis and modelling on a continental scale, with river basins being used as spatial units. This paper presents a screening model (Ag-PIE), developed in a GIS environment, for the assessment of pressures from agricultural land use and the consequent impacts on surface and groundwater. Ag-PIE has been applied at the European scale (EU15), with focus on nitrogen pollution from chemical fertilisers and manure. The model adopts a multi-criteria evaluation procedure applied to spatial data layers which represent the variety of factors affecting the pollution process. The DPSIR (Driving forces, Pressures, State, Impact, Responses) approach is applied to provide the modelling approach with a conceptual framework and to further analyse and communicate results. Ag-PIE is ultimately aimed at providing a tool making use of state-of-the-art geographical databases to support policy-makers at the European level. The scale of reference adopted is the river basin, in particular those that extend across national boundaries. The quality of the results obtained has been assessed against existing related studies and monitoring reports and by means of sensitivity analysis. Conclusions are driven by considering the potential of Ag-PIE in devising policy support and its strengths and weaknesses in view of identifying future research needs.     

Effects of acid mine drainage on groundwater quality: a case study from an open-pit copper mine in eastern Turkey

This study was undertaken to determine the variation in groundwater quality of an open-pit copper mine in Maden (eastern Turkey) which has been in operation since 2000 BC, and with modern methods since 1939. Physical and chemical parameters (including pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, concentrations of Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, HCO₃, SO₄, NO₃, Fe, Co, Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Cd, and Pb) of the groundwater and spring water samples from the study area were measured on a seasonal basis between October 2009 and July 2010. The groundwater quality was hydrochemically assessed in order to determine its suitability for human consumption and agricultural use. The measured and analyzed parameters in all the water samples were below the maximum admissible concentrations set out in international and national standards, guidelines, directives, and regulations for human consumption and for agricultural purposes. In addition, the results of previous studies on the possible effects of the mine site on soil, stream sediment, plants, and surface water in the same area are discussed.