Foraging for identity: the relationships between landscape activities and landscape identity after catastrophic landscape change

ABSTRACT

In this article, we deal with landscape activities in relation to changing landscape identity after a major wildfire in Sweden in 2014. The aim was to investigate the relationships between 22 landscape activities (before the fire) and 2 components (emotion and cognition) of landscape identity (before and after the fire). A total of 656 respondents living nearby the fire area participated in this study. Before the fire, a positive association was found between the activities of enjoying nature and foraging, and both components of landscape identity. This suggests that the more participants enjoyed nature and picked berries and mushrooms, the stronger their attachment to the landscape (emotion), and the more they remembered and reasoned about the landscape (cognition). Post fire, these relationships were found only between the two components of landscape identity and foraging. This implies a significant role of this type of activity for keeping ‘alive’ landscape identity.     

Key concepts in a framework for analysing visual landscape character

A transparent and theory-based scheme for analysing visual character is presented. Based on a literature review, nine key visual concepts are identified: stewardship, coherence, disturbance, historicity, visual scale, imageability, complexity, naturalness and ephemera. The nine visual concepts are presented in a framework of four levels of abstraction, described through the concepts' visual dimensions, landscape attributes contributing to the concepts and potential visual indicators suggested for mapping and quantifying the concepts. Each of these concepts focuses on different aspects of the landscape important for visual quality, where visual quality is an holistic experience of them all. The visual concepts presented are used to describe different characteristics of visual landscapes, rather than presenting a normative value for visual quality. It is believed that this framework can be important for landscape assessment and the compilation of landscape character.     

Key concepts in a framework for analysing visual landscape character

A transparent and theory-based scheme for analysing visual character is presented. Based on a literature review, nine key visual concepts are identified: stewardship, coherence, disturbance, historicity, visual scale, imageability, complexity, naturalness and ephemera. The nine visual concepts are presented in a framework of four levels of abstraction, described through the concepts' visual dimensions, landscape attributes contributing to the concepts and potential visual indicators suggested for mapping and quantifying the concepts. Each of these concepts focuses on different aspects of the landscape important for visual quality, where visual quality is an holistic experience of them all. The visual concepts presented are used to describe different characteristics of visual landscapes, rather than presenting a normative value for visual quality. It is believed that this framework can be important for landscape assessment and the compilation of landscape character.     

Relationship between landscape visual attributes and spatial pattern indices: A test study in Mediterranean-climate landscapes

The analysis of the relationships between landscape visual quality and landscape structural properties is an active area of environmental perception research. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between landscape spatial pattern and the rating of visual aesthetic quality. Eight landscape photographs were evaluated for 11 visual attributes by 98 respondents. The scores obtained for these 11 attributes were subjected to principal components analysis in order to summarize the qualities used by the respondents and thus determine their visual preferences. For each photograph, three window sizes were defined (with respect to a landcover map) to cover the different areas corresponding to the visual field (foreground, mid-ground and background). The landscape spatial structure for each window was analyzed using spatial metrics. The correlation between each dimension and the spatial pattern indices of the landscape were then calculated. Positive correlations were obtained between visual aesthetic quality and a number of landscape pattern indices. The results suggest that landscape heterogeneity might be an important factor in determining visual aesthetic quality.     

Dynamics of integrating landscape values in landscape character assessment: the hidden dominance of the objective outsider

Abstract

While there has been extensive research undertaken on the values which insiders attribute to landscape there is a lack of literature which looks at how planning professionals handle landscape values. In this article, I develop a framework for questioning how landscape values are taken up in landscape planning, with the aim of conceptualising what landscape values mean in practice. This is undertaken through addressing landscape assessment, more specifically analysing how landscape character assessment (LCA) represents a critical point in the framing of landscape values. Through a synthesis of research on landscape values I examine the underlying logic of the LCA documents. I conclude that the values communicated in these assessments tend to be those of ‘objective’ outside experts, predominantly based on aesthetics and focusing on the physicality of landscape. This I argue leads to a questioning the legitimacy of the LCA approach.     

Designing erosion management plans in Lebanon using remote sensing, GIS and decision-tree modeling

Soil erosion by water represents a serious threat to the natural and human environment in Mediterranean countries, including Lebanon, which represents a good case study. This research deals with how to use Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing, and, more specifically, structural classification techniques and decision-tree modeling to map erosion risks and design priority management planning over a representative region of Lebanon. The structural classification organization and analysis of spatial structures (OASIS) of Landsat TM satellite imagery (30 m) was used to define landscapes that prevail in this area and their boundaries, depending on their spectral appearance. The landscape map produced was overlaid sequentially with thematic erosion factorial maps (i.e., slope gradient, drainage density, rainfall quantity, vegetal cover, soil infiltration, soil erodibility, rock infiltration and rock movement). The overlay was visual and conditional using three visual interpretation rules (dominance, unimodality and scarcity conservation), and landscape properties were produced. Rills and gullies were measured in the field, and a decision-tree regression model was developed on the landscapes to statistically explain gully occurrence. This model explained 88% of the variability in field gully measurements. The erosion risk map produced corresponds well to field observations (accuracy of 82%). The landscapes were prioritized according to anti-erosive remedial measures: preventive (Pre), protective (Pro), and restorative (Res). This approach seems useful in Lebanon, but can also serve in other countries with similar geo-environmental conditions or those lacking detailed geospatial data.     

Modeling the dynamics of landscape structure in Asia’s emerging desakota regions: a case study in Shenzhen

The rapid urbanization taking place in Asia since 1970 has exhibited a process different from that of the developed countries in the West. This process has contributed to the emergence of a new landscape in Asia — widely known as the desakota (a combination of two Indonesian words: “desa” for village, “kota” for town) regions described in the McGee–Ginsburg model. These desakota regions are characterized by an intense mix of agricultural and non-agricultural activities that often stretch along corridors between large city cores. Although, the McGee–Ginsburg model captures the socio-demographic dimensions of the rapid urbanization process, little is known about the dynamics of landscape structures in the emerging desakota regions in Asia. By linking remote sensing, landscape characterization indices, and cellular automata modeling with geographic information systems (GIS), this paper develops a GIS-based spatial analysis and modeling approach to study the landscape dynamics of the desakota regions in southeast China. We tested our method using data between 1992 and 1996 for the city of Longhua in the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone — one of the fastest growing areas in southeast China. The results not only confirm the effectiveness of GIS-based spatial analysis and modeling approach in studying the ecological impacts of human activities, but also reveal the salient features of landscape dynamics in the desakota regions. Drawing from the results of this research, we conclude that the pace of urbanization and the size of desakota regions must be controlled in order to create a sustainable future in developing countries.     

Integration of augmented reality and GIS: A new approach to realistic landscape visualisation

This paper describes the development of a photo-realistic visualisation method which uses the combination of a geographic information system (GIS) with off-line augmented reality (AR) techniques. The technique makes a linkage between GIS-based modelling and realistic panoramic video frames to dynamically augment a landscape view with modelled temporal changes. By using real object textures, computer-generated objects can be well matched to background frames and become hardly detectable as computer objects. The technique has been tested with data from an area in northeast Victoria, Australia and has successfully represented the dynamic spread of weeds (blackberries) and their effects on landscape over a period of 14 years. The proposed approach has the potential to improve the communication between policy makers and non-experts and to improve decision-making process. Extensions to other model types and to real-time usage are envisaged.     

Monitoring and predicting land use change in Beijing using remote sensing and GIS

Rapid land use change has taken place in many mega cities of China such as Beijing over the past two decades. In this paper, land use change dynamics were investigated by the combined use of satellite remote sensing, geographic information systems (GIS). The results indicated that there had been a notable and uneven urban growth and a major loss of cropland loss between 1986 and 2001. Most of the urban growth and loss of agriculture land occurred in inner and outer suburbs. Land use change was projected for the next 20 years using Markov chains and regression analyses. The further integration of remote sensing and GIS technologies with Markov model and regression model was found to be useful for describing, analyzing and predicting the process of land use change.     

Layers of the past: A theory and method for historical landscape analysis

The scope of this paper is to present a landscape analysis which allows for the inclusion of dynamics through time and the cultural diversity of the landscape. Our method is to classify the physical landscape into area types based on the main forms of production in the agricultural society. This is combined with known historical sites, and the result is presented as maps representing different periods in time. We also generate character areas from modern land use and geological maps on the basis of the elements which dominate the landscape today. Finally, we combine the time images with the character areas to present functional units in a manner which includes time depth. The method is described through examples from a municipality in southern Norway (Nøtterøy). The method is useful for defining cultural environments for the purpose of area planning and conservation, and is applicable on a general level.     

Using GIS and landscape metrics in the hedonic price modeling of the amenity value of urban green space: A case study in Jinan City, China

Urban green spaces have important amenity values that include provision of leisure opportunities and aesthetic enjoyment. However, most of these values lack a market price. Consequently, they are usually ignored or underestimated by urban planning policy-makers, with the result that remnant urban green spaces are being gradually encroached upon by urban sprawl. As a result, quantitative information regarding the implicit, non-market price benefits from urban green space is urgently required. Properties bought and sold on the market are compound commodities that embody amenity values and people are willing to pay to live in the proximity of local amenity environment. Thus hedonic models, which use such properties as proxies, can often be employed to quantify environmental amenities. In China, residential housing reform (in place since 1998) has terminated the traditional residential welfare system, and made it possible to quantify the monetary value of green space amenities based on hedonic pricing models. This study was conducted in Jinan City, and will help address the previous absence of the application of hedonic price models to the valuation of urban green space amenities in mainland China. GIS and landscape metrics were used in determining hedonic price model variables. As expected, the results proved that the hedonic pricing model performed well using this approach, and accordingly it was further improved. Results also confirmed the positive amenity impact of proximate urban green spaces on house prices, and highlighted the preferences of homeowners in Jinan City. Green space amenity variables that were statistically significant at the 5% level included the size–distance index of scenery forest, accessibility to park and plaza green space types, and the percentage of urban green space. In addition, land-use patch richness, the location sector and the education environment also proved to be highly significant variables. The results of the study should provide insights to policy-makers involved in urban planning.     

Residents’ sense of place and landscape perceptions at the rural-urban interface

Rural residents have different expectations concerning what the rural landscape should be like and what it should be used for. This is especially the case at the rural-urban interface, where the characteristics of rural and urban landscapes have become blurred. In this article, the concept of sense of place is used to explore the relationship between humans and landscape at the rural-urban fringe. Based on a quantitative survey data set, this article examines how the landscape perceptions of local residents can be understood from the basis of their sense of place in Nurmijärvi, a municipality located close to the Helsinki Metropolitan Area in southern Finland. A factor analysis revealed four clusters: Socially connected, Weak bonds, Roots and resources and Committed to place. The clusters differed by their socio-economic profiles as well as their sense of place. The Roots and resources cluster differed most of the other clusters, but in general the differences between the clusters in general landscape perceptions were relatively small. Although a strong sense of place is often assumed to lead to care of place, the willingness to contribute to the landscape did not differ significantly between the clusters. In addition the study revealed the existence of two different approaches to landscape in the rural-urban interface: landscape as a scenery and landscape as a dwelling place.     

Greenways for recreation and maintenance of landscape quality: five case studies in Portugal

The use of the concept of greenway can be identified in Portugal throughout the 20th century as a planning and design tool. Several examples, such as the ‘Improvement Plans for Lisbon’ by Ressano Garcia (1901), the continuum naturale concept [Cabral, F.C., 1980. O Continuum Naturale e a Conservação da Natureza. Conservação da Natureza. Serviço de Estudos do Ambiente, Lisbon; Andresen, T., 2001. Francisco Caldeira Cabral. Landscape Design Trust, Surrey, UK, 213 pp.], the Green Plan for Lisbon [Telles, G.R., et al., 1997. Plano Verde de Lisboa. Ed. Colibri, Lisboa, 197 pp.], deal with the subjects of implementing vegetation corridors, pedestrian networks and landscape quality. These examples establish Portuguese planning and design tradition within the international greenway movement first identified by Fabos [Fabos, J.Gy., 1991. From Park to Greenways into the 21st Century. In: Proceedings from Selected Educational Sessions, ASLA Annual Meeting, Kansas City, Missouri]. Though several projects have been developed at the planning level, there is a need to analyze the applicability of such a concept at the regional, municipal and local level. We must consider the characteristics of Portugal's cultural landscape, recognition by other professions dealing with planning and involvement by politicians. By analyzing five case studies, this paper shows the significance of the greenway as a planning and design strategy, which coincides, with the current objectives of political and planning authorities at the municipal level. It also proves that it is possible to reconcile political objectives and urban development while safeguarding landscape quality and providing new opportunities for public recreation and education. Greenway planning and design is now undoubtedly a subject of growing significance in Portugal.     

Assessing the visual quality of rural villages in China,compared to urban residential areas

Traditional villages in China show a pattern of ‘self-organization’. There is unplanned overall layout of space elements within the village landscape. Since the ‘Building a New Countryside’ policy, professionals have been active in design of the village landscape. The first step is to identify the distinguishing features of the traditional village landscape. This paper aims to identify the distinguishing features of village landscape compared with an urban residential area. The results indicate that abundant plants, shabby houses, monotonous colour, badly-maintained environment and closed space are the distinguishing features. A clean environment and high vegetation coverage are important.     

Water safety plans for piped urban supplies in developing countries: a case study from Kampala,Uganda

Full cost recovery is a major and complex issue that has gained high recognition in recent years. The Water Framework Directive promotes the idea that water charging should act as an incentive for the sustainable use of water resources. Thus, all Member States should take into consideration the principle of recovery of the total cost of water services, which includes environmental and resource costs as well. In order to evaluate various aspects of current water policy, to investigate the perspectives of water saving, to explore new approaches toward sustainable water management in the water supply sector and to evaluate water price elasticity, a survey has been performed recently in the city of Volos, concerning the residential sector. The influence of some selected variables is examined, residential water demand curve and water price elasticity are calculated. Estimations of future water demand under different pricing policies are also performed. Finally, the full water cost for the city of Volos is estimated and essential conclusions concerning water pricing and public participation are drawn.     

Assessment of landscape composition and configuration via spatial metrics combination: conceptual framework proposal and method improvement

Landscape transformations have been a central topic in landscape ecology due to their influence on ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation. Landscape dynamics can be very complex and one of the most difficult issues to analyse is the contribution and the effects of landscape composition and configuration changes to the overall impact. We enhanced an existing approach designed to assess landscape transformation via metrics combination. Based on the area and the number of patches, we defined a Landscape Dynamics Typology (LDT) with eight different dynamics. The agro-forestry areas dynamics between 1990 and 2006, in Portugal, is presented as a practical example to show the implementation steps and the outputs obtained. A diagnostic tree is provided to help identify which dynamics are present. This new method provides detailed results concerning the location of the different dynamics within a landscape. The LDT is a versatile tool and is able to accommodate upgrades.     

Competitive analysis of the Turkish brick industry—a case study for developing countries

The aim of this article was to examine the factors affecting the competition in brick industries in developing countries. Turkish brick industry was analysed as a case study within the frame of Porter's five forces model.     

The emerging role of visual resource assessment and visualisation in landscape planning in Switzerland

The evolution of our understanding of landscape planning and therefore of landscape as a visual resource occurred in parallel with the changes of perception of spatial planning (urban and regional planning), since landscape planning is part of spatial planning. Already in the 1970s the visual landscape was an issue in spatial planning. This can be traced back to the romantic period when the close emotional ties with one’s home country were very important.With the emerging discussion at the end of the 1970s about ecology and ecological planning, more and more the components of natural science of ecological planning were discussed, at the expense of the visual landscape and aesthetics. With the improvement of the possibilities of the digital 3-dimensional (3D) representation of landscape, it seems that landscape as visual resource has once again become more important in the discussion. 3D visualisation will support participation in the planning process and will become an important part of decision support systems in spatial planning. The use of virtual landscapes will help to study processes in the landscape such as fragmentation of landscape and/or urban sprawl.     

Visual threshold carrying capacity (VTCC) in urban landscape management: A case study of Seoul, Korea

The deterioration of the landscape in downtown Seoul has resulted mainly from the cumulative effects of large-scale developments. This article presents the Visual Threshold Carrying Capacity (VTCC) approach for maintaining and enhancing the landscape quality of the area. VTCC can be generally defined as the visual standard by which the value and significance of landscapes can be maintained. Using GIS and computer graphics techniques, VTCCs in this study are analyzed in two main respects: (1) the visibility of landscape resources, and (2) street scale. Subsequently, areas for intensive landscape management can be identified based upon the VTCCs established. The VTCC approach presented in this article integrates visual considerations with the process of developmental decision-making and thereby establishes a visually sound framework for the formulation of development proposals. Further research however, should be conducted to test the transferability and applicability of this approach to other urban landscapes and their related problems.