Investigation of In Situ and Conventional Post‐Weld Heat Treatments on Dual‐Laser‐Beam‐Welded γ‐TiAl‐Based Alloy

This paper describes a way to improve the microstructure and mechanical properties of welding seams by in situ and conventional post‐weld heat treatments for laser beam welding of the Ti–45Al–5Nb–0.2C–0.2B alloy. The seams are crack‐free with reduced longitudinal residual stress and higher elongation to fraction after post‐weld heat treatment. The welding zone consists of α₂ after welding, transforms to a massive γ during in situ post‐weld heat treatment, and finally forms a convoluted microstructure after conventional heating. The phase composition across the welding zone is discussed.     

核用SA508-4N钢粗晶区再热裂纹敏感性评价

采用等温恒速拉伸方法评价了核用SA508-4N钢焊接粗晶区(CGHAZ)的再热裂纹敏感性。使用激光共聚焦、扫描电镜和透射电镜观测和分析粗晶区和断口处的组织、裂纹以及断口形貌,结果表明：SA508-4N钢的母材为回火马氏体,较高含量的碳和铬影响碳化物的大小和分布状态,粗晶区马氏体的形成不利于抑制再热裂纹的产生。碳化物的析出使晶内和晶界的强度不同,当晶内强度大于晶界强度时形成沿晶脆性断裂;当晶内和晶界强度的差距较小时断裂形式包括穿晶和沿晶断裂。SA508-4N钢粗晶区对再热裂纹不敏感,成分A粗晶区的抗再热裂纹能力比成分B的高。在实际生产中,优选的工艺参数为：成分A、焊接t_8/5为25 s、焊后热处理温度580℃。     

Microstructure Characterization of the Fusion Zone of an Alloy 600-82 Weld Joint

Characterization of the microstructure of the fusion zone of an Alloy 600-82 weld joint was conducted,with focus on the weld residual strain distribution and the comparison of the microstructure of heat affected zone(HAZ) with that of cold worked alloy. Peak of the residual strain was observed to approach to the fusion boundary in HAZ while the strain increased from the top of the weld to the root. Strain distribution in the HAZ was found to be concentrated adjacent to grain boundaries(GBs), with a peak of approximately three times of that in grain. Further, triple junctions of the GB appear to cause a higher strain concentration than single GBs. The microstructure of HAZ consists of partially tangled dislocations, which is different from slip bands of high density dislocations in cold worked alloy. This may cause a relatively higher intergranular cracking resistance of HAZ due to the difficulty in transferring tangled dislocations to GB in HAZ under deformation.     

Microstructure and intergranular stress corrosion cracking susceptibility of a SA508-52M-316L dissimilar metal weld joint in primary water

Correlation of microstructure and intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) susceptibility for the SA508-52M-316L dissimilar metal weld joint in primary water was investigated by the interrupted slow strain rate tension test following a microstructure characterization. The susceptibility to IGSCC in various regions of the dissimilar metal weld joint was observed to follow the order of Alloy 52 Mb> the heat affected zone of 316L> the dilution zone of Alloy 52 Mw> Alloy 52 Mw weld metal. The chromium-depletion at the grain boundary is the dominant factor causing the high IGSCC susceptibility of Alloy 52 Mb. However, IGSCC initiation in the heat affected zone of 316L is attributed to the increase of residual strain adjacent to the grain boundary. In addition, the decrease of chromium content and increase of residual strain adjacent to the grain boundary increase the IGSCC susceptibility of the dilution zone of Alloy 52 Mw.     

The effect of rejuvenation heat treatments on the repair weldability of wrought Alloy 718

Extensive precipitation of needle- and plate-shaped δ-phase in the γ-nickel matrix of wrought Alloy 718 is the major microstructural change resulting from multiple weld repair/post weld heat treatment (PWHT) cycles. Isothermal heat treatments at 954 °C for times up to 100 h were used to simulate the multiple PWHTs in laboratory samples. Grain size did not change appreciably during these heat treatments owing to δ-phase pinning of the grain boundaries (GBs). The susceptibility of Alloy 718 to heat-affected-zone (HAZ) liquation cracking degraded as a result of these heat treatments. This degradation is due to the short time, high temperature GB liquation caused by the combined effects of δ-phase dissolution, boron carbide constitutional liquation, and GB segregation. A rejuvenation treatment (1010 °C/2 h) effectively restored the degraded weldability by removing the adverse influence of δ-phase through dissolution above the δ-phase solvus. This heat treatment also promoted a spontaneous grain refinement and increase in the fraction of special GBs owing to the elimination of δ-phase pinning of GBs. The combined effects of δ-phase, grain size and fraction of special GBs are discussed in the context of HAZ liquation cracking that occurs during repair welding of Alloy 718.     

A fracture mechanics approach to estimate the fatigue endurance of welded t-joints including residual stress effects

Residual stresses and weld defects play a major role in the fatigue behaviour of welded structures, so these effects need to be accounted for in a theoretical analysis. A simplified engineering procedure based on linear‐elastic fracture mechanics is applied to estimate the fatigue behaviour, particularly the limit of endurance. Local geometrical irregularities and pre‐existing flaws, which are typical for this kind of weld, are covered by an overall notch intensity factor instead of a specific stress intensity factor, so the initial flaw size is not needed explicitly in the analysis. The effect of residual stresses can be easily included. The cut‐compliance method was applied to measure the residual stress distribution on the cross‐section of the weld. A welded T‐joint was used as a benchmark. Unexpectedly, compressive residual stresses were found to prevail in the root region. According to the analysis, they contribute to the endurance limit of the considered joint by about 50%. This result was confirmed by fatigue tests where a significant decrease in the fatigue strength after a post‐weld stress relieving heat treatment was observed.     

An investigation on thermal, metallurgical and mechanical states in weld cracking of Inconel 738LC superalloy

The influence of various conditions of Inconel 738 superalloy welding or deposition welding has been studied in order to shed light on the coupling between thermal, metallurgical and mechanical states in the heat affected zone (HAZ) in which cracking may occur particularly during welding and post-weld heat treatment. Predominant crack controlling factors have been highlighted thanks to different pre-weld and post-weld heat treatments, in addition to various welding rates and pre-heating prior to welding. These factors are mainly the material ductility related to the morphology and volume fraction of intermetallic precipitates and thermally induced residual stress. It has appeared that reducing thermally induced residual stress could be more effective for preventing cracking than controlling the material ductility in the related zones thanks to adjustment of pre-weld and post-weld heat treatments. With the objective of cracking remediation, welding on preheated parts leads to lower weld power, to reduce significantly thermal gradients, decreases thermally induced stress and impedes cracks formation despite some localized and temporary decrease in alloy ductility.     

Effects of ultrasonic impact treatment on weld microstructure,hardness, and residual stress

Layered ultrasonic impact treatment (LUIT) was used on V-groove welds in 55?mm Q345 steel plate. Two welds were prepared, one by conventional gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and the other by GMAW and LUIT, where impact treatment was performed at nine stages during filling of the 28-pass weld. Microstructure, hardness, and residual stress in the welds were compared. While residual stress is very similar, there are significant differences in microstructure and hardness. The LUIT weld has mainly equiaxed grains and uniform hardness, while the conventional weld has columnar grains and a hardness gradient. It appears that beads in the LUIT weld did not exhibit columnar grain growth, and instead equiaxed grains grew from the fusion boundary into the weld.     

Single pass laser joining of Inconel 718 superalloy with filler

Abstract

Microstructure and mechanical property of CO₂ laser beam welded IN 718 superalloy were studied by electron microscopy and hardness testing. The use of a welding filler wire produced a sound fusion zone with no cracking but grain boundary microfissuring occurred in the heat affected zone (HAZ) and was observed to be significantly influenced by pre-weld heat treatment and laser welding speed. Crack-free weld was produced by a pre-weld heat treatment that minimised non-equilibirum grain boundary boron segregation and inhibited grain growth. While post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) reduced the difference between the hardness values of the base alloy, HAZ and the fusion zone, it resulted in increased HAZ cracking, which was likely aided by pre-existing cracks. The PWHT cracking was, however, avoided by subjecting pre-weld material to the heat treatment condition that produces crack-free weld during welding process.     

T91钢焊缝及热影响区显微组织图象分析

T91钢具有良好的高温抗氧化性和抗腐蚀性,该钢含8％－9．5％Cr,合金含量复杂,焊接难度大,运用金相显微镜和扫描电镜（SEM）分析了不同爆接工艺条件下T91耐热钢焊缝及热影响区或区域显微组织特征,利用XQF－2000型显微图象分析仪对显微组织中各相的相对含量和奥氏体晶粒度进行了测量,分析了焊接线能量对T91钢焊接接头区组织性能的影响,结果表明,采用多道焊焊接工艺,严格控制焊接线能量在16kJ/cm左右,可以防止T91钢焊缝区奥氏体晶粒粗大,避免在热影响区出现声状铁素体组织,从而保证焊接接头区具有良好的组织性能。     

钛合金焊接接头组织性能研究进展

钛合金焊接在航天、海洋、化工等众多领域广泛运用,如何优化钛合金焊接接头组织、成分及分布,提高焊接质量成为人们关注的焦点。总结了不同热处理和填充物对钛合金焊接接头组织和性能的影响:焊后热处理可以稳定组织和调整相的尺寸及分布,提高焊接接头的强度或塑性;合适的填充焊丝和焊缝中焊丝所占的比例,可以在保证接头强度的同时改善其塑性和冲击韧性。最后展望了钛合金焊接和填充物的研究方向。     

Effects of orientation,stress and exposure time on short intergranular stress corrosion crack behaviour in sensitised type 304 austenitic stainless steel

Intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) in austenitic stainless steels occurs at susceptible grain boundaries after sensitisation. In this study, the effects of test duration, static stress (applied and residual) and microstructure orientation on the developed populations of short crack nuclei are reported for a sensitised type 304 austenitic stainless steel in an acidified potassium tetrathionate (K₂S₄O₆) solution. The crack populations were analysed using the Gumbel distribution method, showing an increase in the characteristic crack lengths with increasing time and grain size. There is a weak, but measurable effect of stress on crack length. Tensile stress increases crack growth and compressive residual stresses introduced by surface machining are shown to be beneficial. A significant dependence on sample orientation is observed and this cannot be explained in terms of the bulk microstructure properties or characteristics, which showed no significant variations.     

POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT EFFECTS ON FATIGUE CRACK PROPAGATION IN AN ELECTRON BEAM WELDMENT

This paper studies the effect of two post-weld heat treatment processes on the fatigue behaviour of an electron beam weldment in 9 mm AISI 4130 steel. Electron beam tempering, in a vacuum chamber, immediately after welding and a traditional furnace tempering treatment were compared. Fatigue crack propagation resistance was assessed by a linear elastic fracture mechanics analysis. The resistance to fatigue crack growth was improved with post weld heat treatment due to residual stress relief and the existence of a toughened tempered microstructure. The specimens with an electron beam post-weld heat treatment showed better fatigue properties than those of furnace-treated specimens. An electron beam post-weld heat treatment causes the fatigue crack growth rate to decrease with increasing energy input and decreasing micro-dot-pattern width. For a furnace post-weld heat treatment, the fatigue crack growth rate decreases with increasing tempering temperature.     

C和W对低合金Cr-Mo钢焊缝金属组织和冲击韧性的影响

使用OM、SEM、EPMA、EBSD等手段并进行热膨胀和冲击等实验,研究了C和W元素对第四代钠冷快堆用低合金Cr-Mo钢钨极氩弧焊(TIG)熔敷金属微观组织和冲击韧性的影响.结果 表明:多道次焊接热循环使多层多道焊缝金属的组织分布不均匀,分为表层焊缝组织和中间焊缝组织.表层焊缝组织,可分为熔化区(MZ)、粗晶区(CGH...     

Welding heat input effect on the hydrogen permeation in the X80 steel welded joints

In this study, the effect of microstructure at the base metal (BM), the fine grain heat affected zone (FGHAZ), the coarse grain HAZ (CGHAZ) and weld metal (WM) under different welding heat input on hydrogen permeation in X80 steel weldments have been investigated. Base metal showed the highest effective diffusivity. With each heat input, the effective hydrogen diffusivity in FGHAZ is comparable to that of the base metal. The effective hydrogen diffusivity in weld metal was lower than that in CGHAZ. With increasing the welding heat input, the effective diffusivity in different zones of the weldment decreased correspondingly. Non-metallic inclusions were not detected in each specimen. Constituents in microstructure under low heat input are likely to agglomerate during accelerated cooling. The retained hydrogen may create an unpredictable susceptibility to hydrogen cracking at the CGHAZ even existing during service.     

Characterization of 2024-T351 friction stir welding joints

Characterization of macrostructure, microstructure, hardness, precipitate distribution, residual stress, and cyclic deformation behavior of 2024-T351 friction stir welded joints has been conducted. Inhomogeneous microparameters governing the nonuniform residual stresses and cyclic strength are discussed. The cyclic strength of the weld microregimes is controlled by grain size and distribution of precipitates achieved during the weld process. The comprehensive information of micro-and macromechanics is used to assist in understanding the mechanism that governed the fatigue crack initiation, propagation, and life of the welded joints.     

Effects of microstructure and residual stress on fatigue crack growth of stainless steel narrow gap welds

The effects of weld microstructure and residual stress distribution on the fatigue crack growth rate of stainless steel narrow gap welds were investigated. Stainless steel pipes were joined by the automated narrow gap welding process typical to nuclear piping systems. The weld fusion zone showed cellular–dendritic structures with ferrite islands in an austenitic matrix. Residual stress analysis showed large tensile stress in the inner-weld region and compressive stress in the middle of the weld. Tensile properties and the fatigue crack growth rate were measured along and across the weld thickness direction. Tensile tests showed higher strength in the weld fusion zone and the heat affected zone compared to the base metal. Within the weld fusion zone, strength was greater in the inner weld than outer weld region. Fatigue crack growth rates were several times greater in the inner weld than the outer weld region. The spatial variation of the mechanical properties is discussed in view of weld microstructure, especially dendrite orientation, and in view of the residual stress variation within the weld fusion zone. It is thought that the higher crack growth rate in the inner-weld region could be related to the large tensile residual stress despite the tortuous fatigue crack growth path.     

An analytical study on cracking directions and damage in thermal fatigue crazing subjected to variable amplitude loadings

In this paper, the effects of biaxial mean stress, mainly contributed by the weld residual stress, and thermal loading conditions on cracking directions and damage in high cycle thermal fatigue crazing subjected to variable amplitude loadings are investigated by a combined analytical and computational approach. The cracking directions are related to the orientation of the critical plane defined by the maximum damage. Analytical solutions of the critical plane orientation under constant amplitude biaxial tension/compression loadings are first derived and then employed to study the effects of biaxial mean stress on the critical plane orientation. The critical plane orientation appears to strongly depend on the dominant direction defined by the larger maximum stress. The developed analytical solution of the critical plane orientation and the analytical solution of the thermal stress from the literature are employed to study the effects of thermal loading conditions on the critical plane orientation. The critical plane orientation does not seem to significantly depend on the frequency, the amplitude and the mean value of the fluid temperature fluctuations, and the heat transfer film coefficient between the fluid and the pipe wall. The critical plane orientation under variable amplitude loadings is also studied, and an approximate solution is proposed for convenient engineering applications. The critical plane orientations are used to partially explain the observed cracking directions in the high cycle thermal fatigue crazing in the old residual heat removal system of a nuclear power plant. Finally, the effects of biaxial mean stress and thermal loading conditions on the fatigue crack initiation life are discussed.     

Mechanism of intergranular reheating crack in butt-welded joint of 12Cr1MoV tube served for 40,000 hours

Cracking failure of butt-welded joint of 12Cr1MoV tube was comprehensively studied. Results show that both of initiation and propagation of the primary crack were circumferentially intergranular in the coarse-grained heat affect zone (CGHAZ). Many isolated and intergranular micro-cracks and cavities were observed near the primary crack．Neither oxide or corrosion products were observed in the isolated cavities or micro-cracks. According to the microstructure, location, propagation mode and morphology of the crack,the primary crack in butt-welded joint is concluded to be the intergranular reheating cracking (IRC). The crack failure is mainly due to poor welding quality, characterised by high residual stress and coarsened grain size. Mechanisms on the IRC based on previous laboratory research were studied on the failed tube sample, and results showed that the IRC is accumulation of high-stress induced creep damage, such as cavities along prior austenite grain boundaries (PAGBs). Neither segregation of alloys elements nor trace impurities were detected.     

Comparative experimental study on the modification of microstructural and mechanical properties of friction stir welded and gas metal arc welded EN AW‐6061 O aluminum alloys by post‐weld heat treatment

In this paper, the effects of post‐weld heat treatment on modification of microstructures and mechanical properties of friction stir welded and gas metal arc welded AA6061‐O plates were compared with each other. Gas metal arc welding and friction stir welding were used as the applicable welding processes for AA6061‐O alloys. The applied post‐weld heat treatment consisted of solution heat treatment, followed by water quenching and finally artificial aging. The samples were classified as post‐weld heat treated and as‐welded joints. The microstructural evolution, tensile properties, hardness features and fracture surfaces of both as‐welded and post‐weld heat treated samples were reported. The results clearly showed that friction stir welding process demonstrated better and more consistent mechanical properties by comparison with the gas metal arc welding process. The weld region of as‐welded samples exhibited a higher hardness value of 80 HV0.1 compared to the base material. In addition, the feasibility of post‐weld heat treatment in order to enhance the mechanical properties and to obtain more homogeneous microstructure of 6061‐O aluminum alloys was evaluated.