Automatic and intentional processing of numerical information.

Ss evaluated either numerical size or physical size of stimuli varying along both dimensions. Size congruity, distance, and semantic congruency effects were obtained for numerical comparisons of digit pairs and for comparisons of digits with an internal standard (5). Only the size congruity effect was obtained for physical judgments. It was smaller for pairs in which both stimuli were either both smaller or both larger than 5 than for pairs that contained the digit 5. The results are consistent with the notion that intentional processing is mainly algorithm-based, whereas autonomous processing is mainly memory-based. Implications of the results for models of numerical processing are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Goals in social information processing: The case of anticipated interaction.

Examined the role of anticipated-interaction instructions on memory for and organization of social information. In Study 1, Ss read and recalled information about a prospective partner (i.e., target) on a problem-solving task and about 4 other stimulus people. The results indicated that (a) Ss recalled more items about the target than the others, (b) the target was individuated from the others in memory, and (c) Ss were more accurate on a name–item matching task for the target than for the others. Study 2 compared anticipated interaction with several other processing goals (i.e., memory, impression formation, self-comparison, friend-comparison). Only anticipated-interaction and impression formation instructions led to higher levels of recall and more accurate matching performance for the target than for the others. However, the conditional probability data suggest that anticipated interaction led to higher levels of organization of target information than did any of the other conditions. Discussion considers information processing strategies that are possibly instigated by anticipated-interaction instructions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Serial position curves in rats: Automatic versus effortful information processing.

20 male Long-Evans rats were trained to remember lists of 5 arms on an 8-arm radial maze. A forced-choice memory recognition test procedure was used that required the S to choose between an arm previously visited during the study phase of a trial and an arm not visited. To receive additional food reinforcement, 10 Ss were required to return to the previously visited arm (win-stay) and 10 Ss were required to choose the novel, unvisited arm (win-shift). In this way, a direct comparison was made between the serial position curves (SPCs) generated by win-stay trained and win-shift trained Ss. Only win-stay trained Ss produced the classical U-shaped SPC, which included significant primacy and recency effects. Win-shift Ss showed only recency effects. Findings are discussed in terms of differential processing requirements for the 2 procedures. It is suggested that the win-stay rule necessitates relatively more effortful, elaborative processing than does the win-shift rule, which is used automatically. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adult age comparisons in the processing of event frequency information.

The usual superiority in frequency-of-occurrence judgments of younger vs older subjects was hypothesized to result from greater strategic encoding of the materials conveying frequency information. A subject-paced, visual search task was designed to control nontarget word encoding. Relative frequency judgments for the nontarget word pairs were equally accurate for younger and older subjects, and performance of both groups was above chance. Results suggest that strategic cover-task encoding can induce age differences in incidental frequency processing. Consistent with a nonoptimal as opposed to an optimal view, automatic processes require only minimal capacity for above-chance performance, but additional strategic resources can increase performance. When such additional resources are used more by younger than by older subjects, the former are better in frequency performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Estimating frequency of occurrence.

Various models have been proposed that attribute judgments of frequency of occurrence either to the direct coding of frequency information or to the estimation of frequency from characteristics of memory traces that are not direct frequency codes. We present three experiments that replicate and further explore a phenomenon that is significant in the distinction between direct and indirect models of frequency coding. The phenomenon is that deeper processing of stimulus material results in superior judgments of frequency for that material than does shallower processing. This effect is at least partly attributable to the number of associations that are generated by deep analysis. The results of the present experiments thereby implicate an indirect coding mechanism underlying frequency judgments. However, we also show that there is ample reason to suppose a contribution of a direct coding mechanism as well. The most reasonable view, therefore, is that multiple mechanisms are involved in the registration of frequency of occurrence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The stimulus in information processing.

Argues that the nature of the stimulus is an important variable determining how information is processed. 2 major stimulus concepts are discussed: dimensional integrality vs. separability, and state vs. process limited stimuli. These concepts relate to the effects of stimulus redundancy on discrimination. There will be a gain with redundancy: (a) if the need for redundancy is due to a process limitation and the redundant dimensions are integral, or (b) if the need for redundancy is due to state limitation and the redundant dimensions are separable. Redundancy can also lead to improvement in discrimination if the stimulus elements can be integrated into a gestalt whole. (28 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Auditory grouping based on fundamental frequency and formant peak frequency.

Studied the perceptual grouping of a 4-tone cycle as a function of differences in fundamental frequencies and the freqencies of spectral peaks. Each tone had a single formant and at least 13 harmonics. In Exp 1, the formant was created by filtering a flat spectrum and in Exp 2 by adding harmonics. Fundamental frequency was found to be capable of controlling grouping even when the spectra spanned exactly the same frequency range. Formant peak separation became more effective as the sharpness increased. The effect of each type of acoustic difference depended on the task. Ss could group the tones by either sort of difference but were also capable of resisting the disruptive effect of the other one. This supports the presence of a schema-based process of perceptual grouping and the relative weakness of primitive segregation. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The low-frequency encoding disadvantage: Word frequency affects processing demands.

Low-frequency words produce more hits and fewer false alarms than high-frequency words in a recognition task. The low-frequency hit rate advantage has sometimes been attributed to processes that operate during the recognition test (e.g., L. M. Reder et al., 2000). When tasks other than recognition, such as recall, cued recall, or associative recognition, are used, the effects seem to contradict a low-frequency advantage in memory. Four experiments are presented to support the claim that in addition to the advantage of low-frequency words at retrieval, there is a low-frequency disadvantage during encoding. That is, low-frequency words require more processing resources to be encoded episodically than high-frequency words. Under encoding conditions in which processing resources are limited, low-frequency words show a larger decrement in recognition than high-frequency words. Also, studying items (pictures and words of varying frequencies) along with low-frequency words reduces performance for those stimuli. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Direct coding for frequency of occurrence.

Demonstrated, using an interference paradigm, that there is a place for a direct coding mechanism in a comprehensive theory of frequency coding. Ss were presented words whose frequency was judged later. Under one set of instructions, these words were coded in terms of numerical associates; under another set of instructions, the coding was governed by nonnumerical associates. The condition using numerical associates resulted in frequency estimations that were of lesser quality than those produced in the control condition. This effect, moreover, was a function of the encoding of the target words, not just their retrieval. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Matching words to phenomena: The case of the fundamental attribution error.

Responds to G. D. Reeder's (see record 1983-05603-001) commentary on the present author's (see record 1981-32800-001) challenge of the stature and fundamental quality often accorded the fundamental attributional error (FAE). There may be other tendencies that can reflect fundamental qualities on social perception as well as inaccuracy in that perception. The FAE may indeed be an error, but it is doubted that there will ever be sufficient evidence to defend its singularly fundamental stature. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Continuous versus discrete information processing: Modeling accumulation of partial information.

Comments on D. E. Meyer and colleagues' (see record 1988-28535-001) new technique for examining the time course of information processing, which is a variant of the response signal procedure: On some trials Ss are presented with a signal that requires them to respond, whereas on other trials they respond normally. The accuracy of guesses based on partial information can be determined by using the data from the regular trials and a simple race model to remove the contribution of fast-finishing regular trials from signal trial data. This analysis shows that the accuracy of guesses is relatively low and is either approximately constant or grows slowly over the time course of retrieval. Myers et al argue that this pattern of results rules out most continuous models of information processing. But the analyses presented in the present article show that this pattern is consistent with several stochastic RT models: the simple random walk, the runs, and the continuous diffusion models. The diffusion model is assessed with data from a new experiment using the study–test recognition memory procedure. Fitting the diffusion model to the data from regular trials fixes all parameters of the model except one (the signal encoding and decision parameter). With this one free parameter, the model predicts the observed guessing accuracy. It is concluded that the results obtained from Meyer and colleagues' new technique give qualitative support to some stochastic models and quantitative support to the continuous diffusion model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived numerosity: An information processing analysis.

Presented 3 university students with matrices of from 1 to 16 dots and asked them to count the dots they could see. In Condition 1 a visual noise pattern followed the display of dots by one of several intervals in order to control the time available to process them. In Condition 2 no mask was used, but the exposure duration was varied. In the processing time condition, dots were counted at a rate of 4 msec/dot when less than 6 dots were presented, and at a rate of 60 msec/dot for all dots in excess of 6. If enough time was given to process all the dots presented, virtually all were reported, whereas, if enough time was given to count only some of the dots, virtually none of the excess were counted. In the duration condition, in which processing time was not restricted, counting appeared to be a function of the visibility of the dots, as shown by a family of more linear functions between number of dots presented and number counted, with the slope determined by the duration of exposure. Data are consistent with a serial processing interpretation of dot counting occurring at a very early stage of information extraction, in which there is a serial scanning mechanism which extracts information from an initial brief store and transfers it to a 2nd store for actual counting. (French summary) (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Test anxiety: Deficits in information processing.

Compared 194 high, medium, and low test-anxious undergraduates (Worry and Emotionality Questionnaire) on the retrieval deficit hypothesis. The hypothesis was supported by results showing that high test-anxious Ss did poorly on essay and short-answer questions but did well on multiple choice questions that involved less active retrieval. Specifically, results show that high test-anxious Ss (a) did poorly on a take-home examination that did not emphasize retrieval, (b) reported problems in learning material throughout the course, (c) had problems picking important points in the reading assignments, and (d) encoded information at a more superficial level. Results imply that the worry reported by high test-anxious Ss may not simply be a personality characteristic but may rather be due to their inadequate knowledge of the subject matter. Results also imply that programs for helping such Ss should emphasize developing learning strategies and coping techniques for the test situation. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Automatic vigilance: The attention-grabbing power of approach- and avoidance-related social information.

The automatic processing of information was investigated, varying valence (positive vs. negative) and relevance (other-relevant traits [ORT] vs. possessor-relevant traits [PRT]; G. Peeters, 1983) of stimuli. ORTs denote unconditionally positive or negative consequences for persons in the social environment of the holder of the trait (e.g., honest, brutal) whereas PRTs denote unconditionally positive or negative consequences for the trait holder (e.g., happy, depressive). In 2 experiments using the Stroop paradigm, larger interference effects were found for ORTs than PRTs. This is due to the behavior-relatedness of ORTs. In a go/no-go lexical decision task (Experiment 3), participants either had to withdraw their finger from a pressed key (i.e., "avoid") or had to press a key (i.e., "approach") if a word was presented. Responses to negative ORTs were relatively faster in the withdraw condition, whereas positive ORTs were relatively faster in the press condition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Automatic and controlled processing revisited.

The authors (see PA, Vol 58:305 and 4785) defend their theory of automatic and controlled processing. It is argued that the criticisms of C. Ryan (see record 1983-22634-001) range from irrelevant to incorrect, based on a brief review of data from the present authors' 2 articles and on more recent publications. The evidence Ryan discusses comes from the prememorized-list paradigm, a paradigm that undoubtedly involves automatic and controlled processes but probably not automatic detection and controlled search. It is suggested that a variety of mechanisms consistent with the authors' general theory, some automatic and some controlled, could be operating in the prememorized-list paradigm and can explain the observed results. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between information processing and language production.

We explored the relationships between information processing and language in order to further the understanding of language disturbances in psychiatric patients. To assess the impact of reduced processing capacity on language, 50 undergraduates completed an interview concurrent with a category monitoring task and a control interview without a concurrent task. Syntactic complexity, verbosity, and pause patterns were all disrupted by a reduction in processing capacity. In addition, individual differences in syntactic complexity and information processing were significantly associated, even after accounting for verbal intelligence. We discuss the relevance of the results for understanding language disturbances in psychopathology and hypothesize that a reduction in processing capacity may underlie the decreased syntactic complexity, decreased verbal output, and increased pause length found in schizophrenia. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)