Toward a task analysis of conflict resolution in Gestalt therapy.

Compared 14 Gestalt 2-chair dialog conflict resolution performances with 14 nonresolution performances on structural analysis of social behavior, depth of experiencing, and voice quality. These performances were used to test a proposed 3-stage sequential model of conflict resolution. 28 21–52 yr old clients in therapy were assessed with a battery of tests that included the Experiencing Scale and Structural Analysis of Social Behavior Scale. The pattern of results within the resolution group supported the 3 phase model of conflict resolution. It was found that the degree of affiliation in the previously harsh critic in the dialog clearly distinguished resolvers from nonresolvers. In addition, in all the resolution performances, the 2 sides of the conflict appeared to first go through a stage of opposition and then entered a merging phase, in which the critic softened its attitude as measured by degree of affiliation, voice, and depth of experiencing. The final integration phase, in which the 2 chairs become more autonomous and affiliative and engage in a negotiation, marked the resolution of the conflict. An example of a dialog is provided to indicate some of the processes discussed. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of conceptual complexity on assertive behavior.

Postulated that information-processing style is an important cognitive skill for effective assertive behavior and identified conceptual complexity (CC) as the variable that defined Ss' information-processing approach. In 2 studies, 146 undergraduates differing in CC were compared in their performance on various measures relevant to competent assertive behavior (e.g., Assertiveness Knowledge Inventory, the Hypothetical Behavior Role-Playing Assertion Test, and the Assertiveness Self-Statement Test). In Exp I, high CC Ss (e.g., those who possessed abstract schema for processing social information) demonstrated greater content knowledge, direct delivery skill, and fewer negative self-statements that inhibit assertiveness. Exp II involved the testing of various hypotheses about the specific role of CC in assertive encounters. High vs low CC females were more assertive in difficult situations (e.g., interaction with close friends) but did not differ in simple situations. High CC Ss were more assertive in extended interaction tests, expressed consideration of the needs of others, and were more flexible in sex-role orientation. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the wisdom of assertive job-seeking behavior.

Employer ratings of 16 frequently advocated assertive job-seeking behaviors were summarized in terms of whether or not each would enhance or diminish the applicant's chances for being offered employment. These ratings were further subjected to an Applicant Sex?×?Industry Size MANOVA. Data were derived from 272 employers listed as business or industrial organizations in the 1981 College Placement Annual. Some behaviors were clearly adaptive; others appeared to be self-defeating. The applicant's sex proved irrelevant to hiring decisions; however, company size influenced the employment potential of 5 assertive behaviors. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward a theory of hynotic behavior: Effects on suggestibility of task motivating instructions and attitudes toward hypnosis.

Attitudes toward hypnosis were assessed in 75 college students. 3 weeks later the students were required to participate in an experiment in which they were tested individually on the Barber Suggestibility Scale. The scale was administered under 3 experimental treatments with 25 Ss, ? with positive attitudes toward hypnosis and ? with nonpositive attitudes, assigned randomly to each treatment. The treatments were: Task Motivating Instructions, Hypnotic Induction Procedure, Direct Suggestions (Control). The findings confirmed Hypotheses 1 and 2 which stated: (a) Ss given either brief task motivating instructions or a procedure of the type traditionally termed a hypnotic induction show greater response to suggestions than Ss given neither task motivating insructions nor a hypnotic induction; and (b) brief task motivating instructions and an extended hypnotic induction procedure both elicit high levels of suggestibility. (46 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An experimental investigation of behavior rehearsal in assertive training.

Developed a standardized, semiautomated, behavior rehearsal treatment procedure, and compared 2 variations of this procedure, 1 with performance feedback and 1 without, with 2 control procedures, a placebo therapy, and a no-treatment condition, in training 42 undergraduates to be more assertive. Behavorial, self-report, and psychophysiological laboratory measures, as as an unobtrusive in vivo assertive test, revealed that the 2 behavior rehearsal procedures resulted in significantly greater improvements in assertive performance than did the control conditions. There was a nonsignificant tendency for behavior rehearsal coupled with performance feedback to show the strongest treatment effects. (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A factor analysis of assertive behaviors.

Factor analyzed the data from 5 objective measures of interpersonal behavior, presumed to be tapping "assertiveness," administered to 55 male alcoholic inpatients. In addition, each behavioral measure was correlated with a subjective global rating of assertiveness. Four of the behavioral measures loaded highly on a general factor of assertiveness. The fifth behavioral measure loaded highly on a separate factor, Response Latency. All behavioral measures with the exception of response latency evidenced significant correlations with the subjective rating of global assertiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social desirability responding in the measurement of assertive behavior.

Investigated social desirability responding in the measurement of assertive behavior. 30 22–56 yr old middle-class women completed self-report and analogue behavioral measures of assertion and anxiety before and after assertiveness training. The measures included the Assertion Inventory, the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, and role-played assertiveness scenes during a telephone call. Consistent with social desirability theory and research, high social desirability scorers described themselves as more assertive and less anxious than low scorers, but were behaviorally less assertive than low scorers. Although both high and low scorers improved their assertion skills, high scorers did not appear less anxious after assertiveness training, unlike low scorers. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in assertive behavior: An empirical investigation.

Assertion training for women has been justified on the basis that women are generally less assertive than men or that women have unique problems in being assertive. A review of the literature for sex-related data from self-report measures of assertion indicated that without exception males report higher frequencies of assertive behavior than females. The means are significantly different, however, for only 4 (29%) of the 14 samples reviewed. Differential responding for males and females on individual items from the Adult Self Expression Scale was investigated using 4 samples of a total of 294 male and 408 female Ss. Men reported themselves as more assertive than women on items dealing with bosses and supervisors. Men also reported themselves as being more outspoken when stating opinions and as taking the initiative more readily in social contacts with members of the opposite sex. Women, on the other hand, reported themselves as more assertive in expressing love, affection, and compliments, as well as expressing anger to one's parents. The question of how these sex differences in assertive behavior are affected in assertion-training groups composed entirely of women is discussed. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of covert modeling and model reinforcement on assertive behavior.

Investigated the effect of covert modeling in developing assertive behavior in 45 17-52 yr olds. Nonassertive Ss received covert modeling (imagined scenes in which a model performed assertively), covert modeling plus reinforcement (imagined scenes in which a model performed assertively and favorable consequences followed model performance), no modeling (imagined scenes with neither an assertive model nor favorable consequences), or delayed treatment (no-treatment controls who subsequently received either covert modeling or modeling plus reinforcement). In 4 treatment sessions, both model and model-reinforcement conditions improved significantly on self-report inventories (Conflict Resolution Inventory, Action Situation Inventory, Wolpe-Lazarus Assertive Training Scale, and Wolpe's Willoughby Scale) and a role-playing test of assertiveness. The modeling-reinforcement group tended to show greater assertiveness at posttreatment assessment and follow-up. The effects of covert modeling were maintained up to a 3-mo follow-up assessment. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Covert modeling, imagery assessment, and assertive behavior.

Conducted an investigation to (a) examine the effect of 2 variables in developing assertive behavior using covert modeling and (b) develop a technique to assess ongoing imagery during treatment. Ss were 54 18-61 yr olds. In a 2 * 2 design, the number of models imagined (imagining several models vs imagining a single model perform assertively) and model reinforcement (imagining favorable consequences following model behavior vs imagining no consequences) were combined. A nonassertive-model control group that imagined assertion-relevant scenes was included in the design. Results indicate that imagining multiple models or model reinforcement enhanced behavior change across self-report inventories and a behavioral role-playing test. Treatment effects transferred to novel role-playing situations and were maintained at a 4-mo follow-up assessment. Assessment of imagery during the session corroborated the adherence of Ss to the imagery conditions to which they were assigned. However, Ss systematically introduced elaborations into the scenes. Data suggest the importance of assessing imagery in covert conditioning therapy studies. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An information feedback program for the development of assertive behavior.

Developed and compared "high" and "low" information treatment programs for assertiveness. The high information program consisted of a highly structured and sequenced procedure involving modeling, videotape feedback, behavioral rehearsal, and several other components, while the low information control program involved a less elaborate procedure with fewer components. The effects of coping vs mastery model were also studied. 40 female undergraduates were assigned to a balanced 2 (information level)?×?2 (model type) ANOVA design. The primary dependent variables included the Conflict Resolution Inventory (CRI) and several behavioral measures. Results revealed that all groups produced gains on most measures, but the high information group proved superior, especially on the behavioral indices. The high information effects also generalized better to both similar and dissimilar role-playing situations. Type of model yielded weak effects on the CRI and no effects on the behavioral and generalization measures. Further, groups did not differ at posttest in responding to a reasonable request, and all were in the appropriately compliant range. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Consistency of assertive, aggressive, and submissive behavior for children.

Assessed the interpersonal behavior of 50 3rd–5th grade children (22 boys and 28 girls) over an 8-mo period in a wide variety of naturally occurring school activities. The consistency of the Ss' behavior was found to vary as a function of the S's sex, the class of behavior examined, and the similarity–dissimilarity of the contexts in which the behaviors occurred. Boys demonstrated remarkable consistency in their aggressive expression; 46 of 105 intercorrelations for the aggressiveness dimensions were statistically significant. In general, the consistency of assertive behavior for both boys and girls was unexpectedly high. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Person, situational, and interactional influences on assertive behavior.

Explored the validity of the College Self-Expression Scale (CSES) in the context of 3 alternative models of behavior: personism, situationalism, and interactionalism. 72 high- and 72 low-assertive female college students role-played scenes requiring assertive behavior. The scenes varied on 3 situational dimensions: positive–negative assertion, male–female, and familiar–unfamiliar partner. The dependent measures were content, appropriateness of affect, and duration of reply. Results support the concurrent validity of the CSES and the role of both person and situational, but not interactional, influences on assertion. Implications for assertion training, for using the CSES, and for concept-utilizing assertive behavior are discussed. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locus of control, interpersonal trust, and assertive behavior among newlyweds.

This study related 2 cognitive personality characteristics—locus of control and interpersonal trust—to assertive behavior in a sample of recently married couples. For 86 childless couples who had been in their 1st marriages for less than 1 yr, assertive behavior was measured by the Inventory of Marital Conflicts, an observational procedure in which couples resolve disagreements about hypothetical marital problems. Hypotheses were formulated in terms of individual locus of control (Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale) as well as 2 combinations of locus of control and interpersonal trust (Rotter's Interpersonal Trust Scale): internal–low trust and external–high trust. Results show that internal husbands were more assertive than external husbands in the marriage conflict situation, that external–high trust husbands were least assertive, and that internal–low trust wives were highly assertive. Findings are interpreted in light of previous locus-of-control and trust research, and in terms of unconventional marital role behavior. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward a technology of human behavior for defense use.

Conditions faced by defense managers are changing rapidly. "The significant changes for behavioral scientists are the expansions of the military environment into a world of machines and into new social settings… . Defense management needs a technology of human behavior based on advances in psychology and the social sciences." 6 programs warranting special attention are separately discussed: human performance, man-machine systems. decision processes in the individual, team functions, adaptation of complex organizations to changing demands, and persuasion and motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward a clinical model of suicidal behavior in psychiatric patients

OBJECTIVE: Risk factors for suicide attempts have rarely been studied comprehensively in more than one psychiatric disorder, preventing estimation of the relative importance and the generalizability of different putative risk factors across psychiatric diagnoses. The authors conducted a study of suicide attempts in patients with mood disorders, psychoses, and other diagnoses. Their goal was to determine the generalizability and relative importance of risk factors for suicidal acts across diagnostic boundaries and to develop a hypothetical, explanatory, and predictive model of suicidal behavior that can subsequently be tested in a prospective study. METHOD: Following admission to a university psychiatric hospital, 347 consecutive patients who were 14-72 years old (51% were male and 68% were Caucasian) were recruited for study. Structured clinical interviews generated axis I and axis II diagnoses. Lifetime suicidal acts, traits of aggression and impulsivity, objective and subjective severity of acute psychopathology, developmental and family history, and past substance abuse or alcoholism were assessed. RESULTS: Objective severity of current depression or psychosis did not distinguish the 184 patients who had attempted suicide from those who had never attempted suicide. However, higher scores on subjective depression, higher scores on suicidal ideation, and fewer reasons for living were reported by suicide attempters. Rates of lifetime aggression and impulsivity were also greater in attempters. Comorbid borderline personality disorder, smoking, past substance use disorder or alcoholism, family history of suicidal acts, head injury, and childhood abuse history were more frequent in suicide attempters. CONCLUSIONS: The authors propose a stress-diathesis model in which the risk for suicidal acts is determined not merely by a psychiatric illness (the stressor) but also by a diathesis. This diathesis may be reflected in tendencies to experience more suicidal ideation and to be more impulsive and, therefore, more likely to act on suicidal feelings. Prospective studies are proposed to test this model.     

HTA as a framework for task analysis

The motivation for this paper is to review the status of Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA) as a general framework for examining tasks, including those for which cognitive task analysis methods might be assumed to be necessary. HTA is treated as a strategy for examining tasks, aimed at refining performance criteria, focusing on constituent skills, understanding task contexts and generating useful hypotheses for overcoming performance problems. A neutral and principled perspective avoids bias and enables the analyst to justify using different analytical methods and develop hypotheses as information is gained about the task. It is argued that these considerations are equally valid when examining tasks that are assumed to contain substantial cognitive elements. Moreover, examining cognition within the context of a broader task helps to situate cognition within the network of actions and decisions that it must support, as well as helping to establish where effort in cognitive task analysis is really justified.     

Influence of assessment methods on self-efficacy and outcome expectancy ratings of assertive behavior.

The study evaluated whether alternate assessment methods contribute to variability in self-efficacy and outcome expectancy ratings for refusal of unreasonable requests. Subject assertiveness plus two methods of scene presentation (i.e., printed vs videotape) and two methods of response generation (i.e., experimenter-prepared vs. subject thought-listed) were compared in a repeated measures design. All subjects were exposed to eight request situations that were matched for legitimacy level and target person. Each situation reflected one of four combinations of assessment methods and served to elicit either an efficacy or outcome expectancy rating. For self-efficacy ratings, there was a significant interaction that indicated that the printed scene plus experimenter-prepared response condition yielded significantly higher ratings than all of the other conditions. For outcome expectancy ratings, there was a main effect for response-generation method indicating that the thought-listing method led to lower expectancy of positive outcomes. Also, consistent with past research, assertive subjects reported more positive than negative outcome expectancies. These plus other findings are discussed relative to the cognitive assessment and self-efficacy literatures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What motivates fairness? The role of subordinate assertive behavior on manager's interactional fairness.

This study investigated the proposition that a subordinate's communication style can affect a manager's fairness behavior during decision making and, consequently, can affect the subordinate's attitudes toward the decision, manager, and organization. Two studies were conducted to test these propositions in the context of performance appraisal decisions. First, a laboratory study demonstrated that appraisers engage in more interactionally fair behavior when interacting with an assertive appraisee than with an unassertive appraisee. Second, a quasiexperimental field design showed that training employees on assertiveness, when coupled with self-appraisal, is associated with positive attitudes toward the appraisal and trust in the manager. Implications for understanding the causes of fair behavior and improving the fairness of decisions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)