Gender and the effectiveness of leaders: A meta-analysis.

This article presents a synthesis of research on the relative effectiveness of women and men who occupy leadership and managerial roles. Aggregated over the organizational and laboratory experimental studies in the sample, male and female leaders were equally effective. However, consistent with the assumption that the congruence of leadership roles with leaders' gender enhances effectiveness, men were more effective than women in roles that were defined in more masculine terms, and women were more effective than men in roles that were defined in less masculine terms. Also, men were more effective than women to the extent that leader and subordinate roles were male-dominated numerically. These and other findings are discussed from the perspective of social-role theory of sex differences in social behavior as well as from alternative perspectives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Gender and the evaluation of leaders: A meta-analysis": Correction to Eagly et al.

Reports an error in "Gender and the evaluation of leaders: A meta-analysis" by Alice H. Eagly, Mona G. Makhijani and Bruce G. Klonsky (Psychological Bulletin, 1992[Jan], Vol 111[1], 3-22). Some of the numbers in the Value columns of Table 1, page 11, were aligned incorrectly. The corrected version of Table 1 is provided in the erratum. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1992-16290-001.) Reviews research on the evaluation of women and men that occupy leadership roles. While holding the characteristics, except for sex, constant and varying the sex of the leader, these experiments investigated whether people are biased against female leaders and managers. Although this research showed only a small overall tendency for Ss to evaluate female leaders less favorably than male ones, this tendency was more pronounced under certain circumstances. Specifically, women in leadership positions were devalued relative to their male counterparts when leadership was carried out in stereotypically masculine styles, especially when this style was autocratic or directive. Also, the devaluation of women was greater when leaders occupied male-dominated roles and when the evaluators were men. Findings are interpreted from a perspective that emphasizes the influence of gender roles within organizational settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis.

Research comparing the leadership styles of women and men is reviewed, and evidence is found for both the presence and absence of differences between the sexes. In contrast to the gender-stereotypic expectation that women lead in an interpersonally oriented style and men in a task-oriented style, female and male leaders did not differ in these two styles in organizational studies. However, these aspects of leadership style were somewhat gender stereotypic in the two other classes of leadership studies investigated, namely (a) laboratory experiments and (b) assessment studies, which were defined as research that assessed the leadership styles of people not selected for occupancy of leadership roles. Consistent with stereotypic expectations about a different aspect of leadership style, the tendency to lead democratically or autocratically, women tended to adopt a more democratic or participative style and a less autocratic or directive style than did men. This sex difference appeared in all three classes of leadership studies, including those conducted in organizations. These and other findings are interpreted in terms of a social role theory of sex differences in social behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in self-esteem: A meta-analysis.

Two analyses were conducted to examine gender differences in global self-esteem. In Analysis I, a computerized literature search yielded 216 effect sizes, representing the testing of 97,121 respondents. The overall effect size was 0.21, a small difference favoring males. A significant quadratic effect of age indicated that the largest effect emerged in late adolescence (d?=?0.33). In Analysis II, gender differences were examined using 3 large, nationally representative data sets from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). All of the NCES effect sizes, which collectively summarize the responses of approximately 48,000 young Americans, indicated higher male self-esteem (ds ranged from 0.04 to 0.24). Taken together, the 2 analyses provide evidence that males score higher on standard measures of global self-esteem than females, but the difference is small. Potential reasons for the small yet consistent effect size are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis.

The authors used meta-analytical techniques to estimate the magnitude of gender differences in mean level and variability of 35 dimensions and 3 factors of temperament in children ages 3 months to 13 years. Effortful control showed a large difference favoring girls and the dimensions within that factor (e.g., inhibitory control: d = -.41, perceptual sensitivity: d = -0.38) showed moderate gender differences favoring girls, consistent with boys' greater incidence of externalizing disorders. Surgency showed a difference favoring boys, as did some of the dimensions within that factor (e.g., activity: d = 0.33, high-intensity pleasure: d = 0.30), consistent with boys' greater involvement in active rough-and-tumble play. Negative affectivity showed negligible gender differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in risk taking: A meta-analysis.

The authors conducted a meta-analysis of 150 studies in which the risk-taking tendencies of male and female participants were compared. Studies were coded with respect to type of task (e.g., self-reported behaviors vs. observed behaviors), task content (e.g., smoking vs. sex), and 5 age levels. Results showed that the average effects for 14 out of 16 types of risk taking were significantly larger than 0 (indicating greater risk taking in male participants) and that nearly half of the effects were greater than .20. However, certain topics (e.g., intellectual risk taking and physical skills) produced larger gender differences than others (e.g., smoking). In addition, the authors found that (a) there were significant shifts in the size of the gender gap between successive age levels, and (b) the gender gap seems to be growing smaller over time. The discussion focuses on the meaning of the results for theories of risk taking and the need for additional studies to clarify age trends. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis.

Performed a meta-analysis of 100 studies (published 1963–1988) of gender differences in mathematics performance. They yielded 254 independent effect sizes, representing the testing of 3,175,188 Ss. Averaged overall effect sizes based on samples of the general population indicated that females outperformed males by only a negligible amount. An examination of age trends indicated that girls showed a slight superiority in computation in elementary school and middle school. There were no gender differences in problem solving in elementary or middle school; differences favoring men emerged in high school and college. Gender differences were smallest and actually favored females in samples of the general population, grew larger with increasingly selective samples, and were largest for highly selected samples and samples of highly precocious persons. The magnitude of the gender difference has declined over the years. Gender differences in mathematics performance are small. Nonetheless, the lower performance of women in problem solving that is evident in high school requires attention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in moral orientation: A meta-analysis.

C. Gilligan's (see record 1993-98550-000) critique of L. Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning and her assertion that two modes of moral reasoning (justice and care) exist have been the subject of debate within the field of psychology for more than 15 years. This meta-analysis was conducted to review quantitatively the work on gender differences in moral orientation. The meta-analysis revealed small differences in the care orientation favoring females (d?=?–.28) and small differences in the justice orientation favoring males (d?=?.19). Together, the moderator variables accounted for 16% of the variance in the effect sizes for care reasoning and 17% of the variance in the effect sizes for justice reasoning. These findings do not offer strong support for the claim that the care orientation is used predominantly by women and that the justice orientation is used predominantly by men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in verbal ability: A meta-analysis.

Located 165 studies that reported data on gender differences in verbal ability. The weighted mean effect size was +0.11, indicating a slight female superiority in performance. The difference is so small that we argue that gender differences in verbal ability no longer exist. Analysis of tests requiring different cognitive processes involved in verbal ability yielded no evidence of substantial gender differences in any aspect of processing. Similarly, an analysis of age indicated no striking changes in the magnitude of gender differences at different ages, countering Maccoby and Jacklin's (1974) conclusion that gender differences in verbal ability emerge around age 11 yrs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in domain-specific self-esteem: A meta-analysis.

This meta-analysis examines gender differences in 10 specific domains of self-esteem across 115 studies, including 428 effect sizes and 32,486 individuals. In a mixed-effects analysis, men scored significantly higher than women on physical appearance (d = 0.35), athletic (d = 0.41), personal self (d = 0.28), and self-satisfaction self-esteem (d = 0.33). Women scored higher than men on behavioral conduct (d = ?0.17) and moral–ethical self-esteem (d = ?0.38). The gender difference in physical appearance self-esteem was significant only after 1980 and was largest among adults. No significant gender differences appeared in academic, social acceptance, family, and affect self-esteem. The results demonstrate the influence of reflected appraisals on self-esteem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences across age in motor performance: A meta-analysis.

Conducted a meta-analysis of 64 studies that reported gender differences on motor performance during childhood and adolescence. Findings yielded 702 effect sizes based on data from 15,518 female and 15,926 male 3–20 yr olds. Age was regressed on effect size, and the relation was significant for 12 of 20 tasks (e.g., balance, catching, grip strength, shuttle run, throw velocity, tapping). Several types of age-related curves were found; the curve for a throwing task was the most distinctive. Five of the tasks followed a typical curve of gender differences across age. For 8 tasks, gender differences were not related to age, and effect sizes were small. Results are discussed in relation to the development of gender differences to biological and environmental sources. A bibliography of the 64 studies is appended. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: A meta-analysis.

In this article, we meta-analytically examine experimental studies to assess the moderating effect of provocation on gender differences in aggression. Convergent evidence shows that, whereas unprovoked men are more aggressive than women, provocation markedly attenuates this gender difference. Gender differences in appraisals of provocation intensity and fear of danger from retaliation (but not negative affect) partially mediate the attenuating effect of provocation. However, they do not entirely account for its manipulated effect. Type of provocation and other contextual variables also affect the magnitude of gender differences in aggression. The results support a social role analysis of gender differences in aggression and counter A. H. Eagly and V. Steffen's (see record 1987-10140-001) meta-analytic inability to confirm an attenuating effect of provocation on gender differences in aggression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The impact of previous leaders on the evaluation of new leaders: An alternative to prototype matching.

In 2 studies, this research demonstrated the existence of leader transference, a cognitive process whereby mental representations of previous leaders are activated and used for evaluation when new, similar leaders are encountered. The 1st study demonstrated that exposure to a new leader who was similar to a past leader led to erroneous generalization of leader characteristics and associated underlying attributions. The 2nd study showed that expectations of just treatment and abuse were also subject to transfer from old to new, similar leaders, although positive and negative affective responses were not. Results suggested that individuals exposed to a leader who was not reminiscent of an old leader were more likely to use a general leader prototype to form leader expectations, whereas individuals exposed to a leader who was similar to an old leader activated a significant other mental representation for use in making judgments. These results have implications for individual- and relational-level processes as characterized by implicit leadership theory and leader-member exchange theory as well as macro theories of leader succession and organizational culture change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in self-concept among children and adolescents: A meta-analysis of multidimensional studies.

This investigation consolidated the recent research on gender differences in self-concept among children and youth by conducting a systematic meta-analysis of research published since 1980, particularly involving self-concept as a multidimensional phenomenon. Through a comprehensive search process, 22 studies representing over 19,000 child and adolescent participants were analyzed. The articles included participant samples from 7 nations: the US, Australia, Northern Ireland, South Africa, Finland, Norway, and Canada. Participants ranged from 1st grade through 12th grade. Mean effect size estimates across dimensions showed a complex pattern of gender differences and similarities, some of which were consistent across grade levels and others of which were not. Although some of the findings defied stereotypes, several were consistent with previous notions regarding differences in self-concept based on gender. The direction and complexity of these results emphasizes the importance of discussing developmental differences in self-concept in a thoughtful and careful manner and argues against the use of simplistic global generalizations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effectiveness of training in organizations: A meta-analysis of design and evaluation features.

The authors used meta-analytic procedures to examine the relationship between specified training design and evaluation features and the effectiveness of training in organizations. Results of the meta-analysis revealed training effectiveness sample-weighted mean ds of 0.60 (k = 15, N = 936) for reaction criteria, 0.63 (k = 234, N = 15,014) for learning criteria, 0.62 (k = 122, N = 15,627) for behavioral criteria, and 0.62 (k = 26, N = 1,748) for results criteria. These results suggest a medium to large effect size for organizational training. In addition, the training method used, the skill or task characteristic trained, and the choice of evaluation criteria were related to the effectiveness of training programs. Limitations of the study along with suggestions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in personality: a meta-analysis

Four meta-analyses were conducted to examine gender differences in personality in the literature (1958-1992) and in normative data for well-known personality inventories (1940-1992). Males were found to be more assertive and had slightly higher self-esteem than females. Females were higher than males in extraversion, anxiety, trust, and, especially, tender-mindedness (e.g., nurturance). There were no noteworthy sex differences in social anxiety, impulsiveness, activity, ideas (e.g., reflectiveness), locus of control, and orderliness. Gender differences in personality traits were generally constant across ages, years of data collection, educational levels, and nations.     

Gender differences in ADHD: a meta-analysis and critical review

OBJECTIVE: To quantitatively review and critically evaluate literature examining gender differences in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). METHOD: A meta-analysis of relevant research based on 18 studies meeting inclusion criteria was performed. Domains evaluated included primary symptomatology, intellectual and academic functioning, comorbid behavior problems, social behavior, and family variables. RESULTS: Gender differences were not found in impulsivity, academic performance, social functioning fine motor skills, parental education, or parental depression. However, compared with ADHD boys, ADHD girls displayed greater intellectual impairment, lower levels of hyperactivity, and lower rates of other externalizing behaviors; it was not possible to evaluate the extent to which referral bias affected these findings. Some gender differences were clearly mediated by the effects of referral source; among children with ADHD identified from nonreferred populations, girls with ADHD displayed lower levels of inattention, internalizing behavior, and peer aggression than boys with ADHD, while girls and boys with ADHD identified from clinic-referred samples displayed similar levels of impairment on these variables. CONCLUSIONS: The need for future research examining gender differences in ADHD is strongly indicated, with attention to methodological limitations of the current literature, including the potential confounding effects of referral bias, comorbidity, developmental patterns, diagnostic procedures, and rater source.     

Teachers as leaders: A moderator variable approach.

A review of research on teachers as leaders shows that current approaches have produced unclear and inconsistent results. A new approach—viewing teachers in a situational context—is suggested. 155 students filled out 2 questionnaires; the 1st (administered during the 5th wk of class) contained measures of teacher leadership behavior and student role clarity, and the 2nd (administered during the 10th wk) measured overall student satisfaction with the class. Student performance was also assessed at the 10th wk. It was found that (a) student performance significantly correlated with teacher supportiveness and directiveness under low role clarity but not high role clarity, and (b) the differences in these correlations were statistically significant. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aging and the Stroop effect: A meta-analysis.

In this meta-analysis, data from 20 studies comparing younger and older adults on the Stroop interference effect, contained in 15 articles, were analyzed. No significant difference was found in the Stroop interference effect, expressed as mean standardized difference, between the 2 age groups (for younger adults: d?=?2.04; for older adults: d?=?2.17). Moderator variables were present, but these did not produce age differences. Brinley analysis showed that a single regression line with a slowing factor of 1.9 described the data well (R2?=?.83) and confirmed that no Age?×?Condition interaction was present in the data. Likewise, no Age?×?Condition interaction was found when the data were fitted to the information loss model; the age ratio of decay rates was estimated to be 1.4. Consequently, the apparent age-sensitivity of the Stroop interference effect appears to be merely an artifact of general slowing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)