Structural equation models of relationships between exercise and cognitive abilities.

Data were obtained from 300 men and women aged 55 to 91. Separate structural equation models of relationships between physical exercise and 3 cognitive performance variables—reaction time (RT), working memory, and reasoning—fit the data well. Other variables in the models were age, health, education, and morale. Age and exercise affected each performance variable directly; education had a direct effect on reasoning only. There were also indirect effects of age and health on performance variables, mediated through exercise. The main hypothesis of the study, that exercise contributes to performance, was supported. A large decrease in model fit resulted when the path from exercise to each variable was deleted. Hypotheses that age-related deficits are primarily accounted for by lack of exercise or by poor health were not supported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory complaints and abilities among depressed older adults.

The relation between complaints of memory problems and memory test performance was examined among depressed (n?=?25) and nondepressed (n?=?25) adults over the age of 40 years. Depressed adults were diagnosed from interviews using Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III) criteria and from responses to the Beck Depression Inventory. A dissociation between memory complaints and performance was observed. Depressed adults complained of greater problems in memory than nondepressed adults. However, the memory test performances of both groups were in the average-to-above-average range. These results are discussed in light of the role of self-deprecating cognitive distortions in the tendency of depressed individuals to negatively evaluate all their abilities, including their memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Long-term stability and intercorrelations of cognitive abilities in older persons.

This project studied the intercorrelations and long-term stabilities of standard Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised (WAIS—R), Wechsler Memory Scale—Revised (WMS—R), and Auditory–Verbal Learning Test (AVLT) summary indexes. It also reports similar data on the recently published Mayo Cognitive Factor Scales (MCFS), which are derivative indexes for the combined administrations of these 3 tests. These analyses challenge 2 assumptions that most psychologists make when interpreting adult cognitive tests: (a) that for cognitively normal people, performance in one cognitive domain correlates well with and predicts functioning in other cognitive domains, and (b) that in the absence of pathology, cognition is stable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prospective memory and self-reports of memory abilities in older adults.

Investigated age differences in prospective memory, and the relations among metamemory, reported use of memory aids, and actual performance on prospective memory tasks. Ss were 83 males and 145 females, aged 30–99 yrs, (with approximately equal numbers in each of the age ranges of 30–39, 40–49, 50–59, 60–69 and 70+ yrs) who completed a metamemory questionnaire and 2 prospective memory tests. Findings of the metamemory task show an age-related increase in reported memory problems. The pattern of correlations revealed that metamemory scores and prospective remembering performance were often negatively correlated (especially for the 30-yr-old people). The correlations indicated either that people have poor knowledge about their own memory abilities or that their concept of memory is different from that of the psychologist. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The structure of verbal abilities in young and older adults.

Four language sample measures as well as measures of vocabulary, verbal fluency, and memory span were obtained from a sample of young adults and a sample of older adults. Factor analysis was used to analyze the structure of the vocabulary, fluency, and span measures for each age group. Then an "extension" analysis was performed by using structural modeling techniques to determine how the language sample measures were related to the other measures. The measure of grammatical complexity was associated with measures of working memory including reading span and digit span. Two measures, sentence length in words and a measure of lexical diversity, were associated with the vocabulary measures. The fourth measure, propositional density, was associated with the fluency measures as a measure of processing efficiency. The structure of verbal abilities in young and older adults is somewhat different, suggesting age differences in processing efficiency. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in rates of change in cognitive abilities of older persons.

The authors examined change in cognitive abilities in older Catholic clergy members. For up to 6 years, participants underwent annual clinical evaluations, which included a battery of tests from which summary measures of 7 abilities were derived. On average, decline occurred in each ability and was more rapid in older persons than in younger persons. However, wide individual differences were evident at all ages. Rate of change in a given domain was not strongly related to baseline level of function in that domain but was moderately associated with rates of change in other cognitive domains. The results suggest that change in cognitive function in old age primarily reflects person-specific factors rather than an inevitable developmental process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships between leisure time physical activity for exercise and other health-related behaviors

In this article the relationships between physical activity for exercise and other health-related behaviors is studied. The data analyzed were collected during 1991 by telephone in Glasgow and Edinburgh and concern 2418 male and 3053 female respondents between 18 and 60 years of age. In the analysis, respondents who reported exercising less than once in the previous week were contrasted with respondents who reported exercising more often. Compared with respondents exercising less often, respondents who reported exercising more often reported being smokers and adding salt to their food significantly less often, and more often reported drinking alcohol, using low-fat spread and engaging in weight-losing behavior. No significant relation was found between physical activity for exercise and seat-belt use among males and blood pressure checking among males and females.     

Serum uric acid and cognitive function in community-dwelling older adults.

Among possible markers of age-related cognitive decline, uric acid (UA) is controversial because it has antioxidant properties but is increased in diseases that often lead to cognitive impairment. In this study of 96 elderly adults, participants with mildly elevated (but normal) serum UA were 2.7 to 5.9 times more likely to score in the lowest quartile of the sample on measures of processing speed, verbal memory, and working memory. Even after controlling for age, sex, race, education, diabetes, hypertension, smoking, and alcohol abuse, the multivariate-adjusted odds of poor verbal memory and working memory remained significant (ps     

Long-term follow-up of physical activity behavior in older adults.

Objective: To examine the contribution of social-cognitive factors (self-efficacy and affect) in predicting long-term physical activity in a sample of older adults (N = 174). Design: A prospective design assessed physical activity and psychosocial variables at 2 and 5 years following a 6-month randomized, controlled exercise trial. Main Outcome Measures: The primary outcome variable was self-reported physical activity, with previous behavior, self-efficacy, and affect assessed as determinants of physical activity. Results: Covariance modeling analyses indicated that physical activity at Year 2 was the strongest predictor of physical activity at 5-year follow-up. Both self-efficacy and affect at Year 2 were also associated with physical activity at Year 5, as was original treatment condition. Variables accounted for 35% of the variance in Year 5 activity. Conclusion: Older adults with higher levels of physical activity, more positive affect, and higher self-efficacy at Year 2 were more likely to continue to be active at Year 5. This study is one of the longest follow-ups of exercise behavior in older adults and has implications for structuring environments to maximize the maintenance of physical activity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships between cognitive and social functioning in preschool children.

Examined short-term longitudinal relationships between test measures of cognitive processes and ratings of classroom behaviors observed during free play. Ss were 64 35–57 mo old middle-class preschoolers, 34 boys and 30 girls. Magnification of the same covariation pattern over time was used as an index of reciprocal influences between cognitive and social functioning. Analyses differentiated between the static (individually stable) and linear-change components of social attributes. Verbal-conceptual processes covaried positively with the static measures of socially outgoing and task-oriented behaviors and with positive vs negative affective expressions in girls, but not in boys. A nonverbal cognitive measure did not so relate to the social measures. The linear-change components of certain social attributes exhibited consistent though limited relationships with the cognitive measures. The study yielded little evidence for reciprocity between the cognitive and social domains. Certain cognitive processes facilitated social adaptation, but social adaptation did not influence cognitive growth. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Task control and cognitive abilities of self and spouse in collaboration in middle-aged and older couples.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 22(4) of Psychology and Aging (see record 2007-18670-006). Due to an editing mistake, the order of authorship was incorrect. The correct order is as follows: Berg, Smith, Ko, Beveridge, Story, Henry, Florsheim, Pearce, Uchino, Skinner, & Glazer.] Collaborative problem solving may be used by older couples to optimize cognitive functioning, with some suggestion that older couples exhibit greater collaborative expertise. The study explored age differences in 2 aspects of collaborative expertise: spouses' knowledge of their own and their spouse's cognitive abilities and the ability to fit task control to these cognitive abilities. The participants were 300 middle-aged and older couples who completed a hypothetical errand task. The interactions were coded for control asserted by husbands and wives. Fluid intelligence was assessed, and spouses rated their own and their spouse's cognitive abilities. The results revealed no age differences in couple expertise, either in the ability to predict their own and their spouse's cognitive abilities or in the ability to fit task control to abilities. However, gender differences were found. Women fit task control to their own and their spouse's cognitive abilities; men only fit task control to their spouse's cognitive abilities. For women only, the fit between control and abilities was associated with better performance. The results indicate no age differences in couple expertise but point to gender as a factor in optimal collaboration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Performance following ability-focused physical therapy intervention in individuals with severely limited physical and cognitive abilities

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Do individuals with severely limited physical and cognitive abilities improve their gross motor abilities when given physical therapy intervention, and does improvement transfer to nontreatment settings? SUBJECTS: The subjects were 24 individuals (10 female, 14 male), aged 3 to 30 years (X = 20.1, SD = 8.1), who were nonambulatory and had limited adaptive behavior. METHODS: Change in gross motor ability during 18 weeks of twice-weekly therapy was measured using goal attainment scaling (GAS). Three gross motor goals were developed for each subject based on individual or caregiver needs, with one goal randomly selected as a control. Physical impairments were treated, and behavioral management principles, low-level communication approaches, high-repetition practice of goals, and a progressive reduction of both physical assistance and multisensory cues were used. An independent rater scored goal level from randomly ordered videotapes recorded during therapy and in recess and home settings. RESULTS: Mean GAS T scores were higher for treatment goals (X = 45.6, SD = 10.5) compared with control goals (X = 34.6, SD = 11.8). When the expected goal level (50) was met during therapy, mean GAS T scores in recess settings ( X = 35.9, SD = 11.5) and home settings (X = 42.2, SD = 12.2) were lower. At the conclusion of therapy, there were no differences in goal levels between treatment and control goals in both the recess and home settings. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION: The subjects demonstrated improvement of gross motor abilities practiced during therapy. Level of ability during therapy, however, did not consistently transfer to the recess of home settings. [Brown DA, Effgen SK, Palisano RJ. Performance following ability-focused physical therapy intervention in individuals with severely limited physical and cognitive abilities.     

Somatic androgyny and cognitive abilities.

Examined somatic androgyny and IQ in 3 longitudinal studies, conducted at the Institute of Human Development, in order to determine how robust the androgyny–ability relationships reported in recent studies are, and whether these relationships are found after sexual maturity is attained. Results do not reveal significant relationships between androgyny and abilities at either adolescence or middle adulthood, although trends are in the predicted directions. There were no systematic findings from analyses separating aspects of somatic androgyny that are more likely to be primarily under control of the sex hormones as opposed to those that are probably subject to other genetic and/or environmental influences. These results are discussed in terms of factors that might moderate androgyny–ability relationships. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Everyday problem solving in older adults: Observational assessment and cognitive correlates.

Older adults' ability to solve practical problems in 3 domains of daily living was assessed using a new measure of everyday problem solving, the Observed Tasks of Daily Living (OTDL). Findings showed that the OTDL formed internally consistent scales representing 3 distinct factors of everyday problem solving. Moreover, the OTDL showed convergent validity with related scales of a paper-and-pencil test. Older adults' performance on the OTDL was significantly correlated with their scores on measures of basic mental abilities. Path analysis showed that age affected older adults' performance on the OTDL directly and indirectly via cognitive abilities. Participants' education and health affected their everyday competence indirectly through cognitive abilities. The effects of perceptual speed and memory span were mediated by fluid and crystallized intelligence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A physical fitness model of older adults

Physical fitness for young people is viewed as a multidimensional construct, in that it consists of specific components such as strength, mobility, balance, flexibility, and stamina. This study examined whether this structure underlying physical fitness is also relevant to older adults. A 10-item performance test, which was assumed to assess six components of physical fitness, was administered to 69 healthy volunteers ranging in age from 61 to 83 years. A covariance structure model was applied to the test data: the second-order factor was Physical Fitness, and the first-order factors were Strength, Walking, Balance, Flexibility, Stamina, and Manual Speed which were assumed to be measured based on the ten observed variables. Goodness-of-fit index (GFI) of the model was acceptable (GFI = 0.93). While four factors relating to basic motor performances (Strength, Walking, Balance, and Manual Speed) had loadings more than 0.62 to Physical Fitness, Flexibility and Stamina had less than 0.35. It was suggested for elderly people that strength, mobility, balance, and speed components of physical fitness were highly correlated and explainable by a single factor, while flexibility and cardiorespiratory endurance were to be measured by use of specific measures.     

Relations between prenatal testosterone levels and cognitive abilities at 4 years.

Relations between prenatal testosterone (T) levels and cognitive abilities at age 4 were examined for 28 girls and 30 boys. Prenatal T levels were measured in 2nd trimester amniotic fluid samples obtained by amniocentesis and were examined in relation to scores on tests of cognitive abilities. For girls, prenatal T levels showed a curvilinear (inverted U-shaped) relation to language comprehension and classification abilities. Linear relations also were observed in that prenatal T levels were inversely related to girls' scores on tasks assessing counting and number facts. Similarly, girls with high average block building scores had lower prenatal T and cognitive abilities were not observed. The observation of relations in girls and not boys is discussed, and the findings are examined in relation to theories of hormone-behavior relations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group cognitive therapy and alprazolam in the treatment of depression in older adults.

This study was designed to explore the relative and combined effectiveness of alprazolam (Xanax) and group cognitive therapy among elderly adults experiencing major affective disorder. Fifty-six subjects with Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III) diagnoses of major, unipolar depression were treated over a 20-week period in one of four groups: alprazolam support, placebo support, cognitive therapy plus placebo support, and cognitive therapy plus alprazolam support. The results revealed that individuals assigned to group cognitive therapy showed consistent improvement in subjective state and sleep efficiency relative to non-group-therapy subjects. No differences between alprazolam and placebo were noted, regardless of whether individuals received group cognitive therapy. Subjects assigned to group cognitive therapy were less likely than their counterparts to prematurely terminate treatment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The cognitive interview enhances long-term free recall of older adults.

The Cognitive Interview, a retrieval-based mnemonic technique, has received only limited attention in its application with older adults, and based on previous findings, its benefit to older adults is unclear. The authors found that the Cognitive Interview effectively increased older adults' recall relative to standard recall instructions at a 3-week delay. These findings demonstrate the benefit of a standardized (rather than the prototypically interactive) Cognitive Interview as applied to perceptually impoverished, text-based stimuli. Both theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A home-based exercise program for nondisabled older adults

OBJECTIVES: This paper describes a videotaped, home-based, strength training program, titled Strong-for-Life and reports on its effectiveness in improving muscle strength, psychological well-being, and health status in a sample of older persons. DESIGN AND SETTING: We enrolled 102 nondisabled, community-dwelling older people aged 66 to 87, identified from the Medicare beneficiary list, into a randomized, controlled trial. MEASUREMENTS: Effectiveness was based on change in isokinetic upper and lower extremity muscle strength, psychologic well-being, and health status. RESULTS: Results revealed several statistically significant short-term benefits after 12 to 15 weeks of exercise, especially for men. Younger older adults demonstrated a 10% improvement in knee extensor strength relative to control subjects. Older male exercisers achieved significant differences relative to controls in perceived anger, tension, and overall social functioning. Male exercisers, in general, achieved significant improvement in perceived vigor. Women did not report psychological benefits following participation in the program. CONCLUSION: Study results reveal that the Strong for Life program, designed to be widely disseminated to the nondisabled older population, has many short-term positive benefits.     

Relations between children's overestimation of their physical abilities and accident proneness.

Two experiments examined developmental changes in the accuracy of children's judgments about their physical abilities. Experiment 1 showed that 6- and 8-year-olds overestimated their ability to perform tasks just beyond and well beyond their ability. Adults only had difficulty making judgments about tasks just beyond their ability. Experiment 2 investigated how experience with performing activities influences judgments about physical abilities. Six-year-olds again overestimated their ability to perform tasks just beyond and well beyond their ability. Eight-year-olds were more accurate about tasks well beyond than just beyond their ability. In both experiments, overestimation of ability was associated with accidental injuries for 6- but not for 8-year-olds. The discussion focuses on children's overestimation of physical abilities and the relation between overestimation and accident proneness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)