One person and two person psychologies and the method of psychoanalysis.

The distinction between a monadic theory of mind (a one-person psychology) and a relational theory of mind (a two-person psychology) is crucial in understanding psychoanalytic concepts. However, some psychoanalytic theorists see these two models as essentially complementary whereas others see them as contradictory and irreconcilable. I argue that the artificial distinction between clinical theory and metapsychology obscures the recognition that the most fundamental psychoanalytic clinical concepts and procedures were formulated and historically understood as one-person phenomena. Transference was not conceptualized as an interpersonal event occurring between two people but was rather understood as a process occurring within the mind of the analysand. The article attempts to extricate fundamental clinical concepts from the quasibiological drive theory that has dominated both our metapsychology and our clinical theory, and to reexamine the value of these clinical concepts within a relational, contextual, and intersubjective framework. The article examines the method of free association in order to illustrate the different implications of one-person and two-person psychologies. I propose that a two-person or relational field theory does not need to neglect or minimize the... (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is psychology relevant to new priorities?

Discusses ways in which psychology participates in establishing and in implementing new social priorities through theory, methods, applied research, and professional skills. The social import of the "metapsychological" assumptions about human nature purveyed by psychologists is stressed. The assumptions of Skinnerian behaviorism and of "humanistic psychology" are both challenged in terms of their scientific base and social consequences. A humanized scientific psychology is advocated. (37 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some factors affecting the reduction of overt hostility.

2 assumptions were tested to explain observations that initial expressions of aggression may be followed by decline in such unfriendly attitudes. The "symbolic catharsis hypothesis" assumes the reduction of hostile attitudes due to vicarious (fantasy) expression of hostility; guilt theory assumes inhibition, rather than reduction, of hostile atitudes. Ss were fed information, supposedly opinions of each other, which encouraged unfriendly or friendly attitudes. Ss were then either allowed to associate to TAT cards or fed additional information so as to be made to feel guilty about unfriendly attitudes towards the other. Results were interpreted as supporting the guilt hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-deception: A postmodern reflection.

The traditional perspective on self-deception, which assumes that the mind can be simultaneously involved in contradictory stories and that there is an integrated understanding of the "truth" somewhere inside, is apparent in most contemporary theories of psychology. A critique of the phenomenon from a postmodern perspective raises questions regarding these assumptions. Ideas from evolutionary biology and research concerning hypnotically induced amnesia are used to support the thesis that self-deception is more a cultural phenomenon maintained by the observer, than a natural phenomenon situated in the individual mind. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Why Don't You Listen to What I'm Not Saying?

Reviews the book, Why Don't You Listen to What I'm Not Saying? by Judith Milstein Katz (1981). This tiny volume reads like 13 enjoyable undergraduate lectures: enjoyable because the writing style is light rather than ponderous. Katz challenges the view that reality exists independent of our interpretation of it. The central theme of the book is that we create our social realities because all interpersonal behaviour is ambiguous. We generate hypotheses or theories about the behaviours of others. Each of these hypotheses is based on assumptions of differing weights. Our weighting of an assumption, our preference for a particular hypothesis, influences the probability of finding "evidence" to back up our preferred assumption/ hypothesis. Our hypotheses and theories become self-fulfilling prophesies. The focus of the book is mainly on the interpretations of the social interactions of marital (or near-marital) partners, with some additional illustrations from parent/child interactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Practices, Power, and Cultural Ideals.

This article and the following ones by Slife (2005; see record 2005-08232-002) and Westerman (2005; see record 2005-08232-001) represent a coordinated effort on the authors' part to begin to mine the resources of what has been termed the "practice turn in contemporary theory" (Shatzki, 1996, Shatzki, Cetina, & Savigny, 2001) for psychology. The liberal approach tends to focus on a fear of power and how it can corrupt our best ideals, while the postmodernist tends to focus on a fascination with power flowing through the social and institutional expressions of these very ideals. Given modern Western culture's deep antiauthoritarian tenor, these two responses can be seen as reflecting what might be termed an underlying "control or be controlled" dilemma. We suggest the practice turn and hermeneutics offer an avenue for effectively getting past this basic dilemma. They make it clear that in everyday life, we are both profoundly shaped and influenced by the world and other people and influence them, in turn, by the way we interpret them and adjust to them as we engage in the fields of practices in which we find ourselves. Personal and social influences at play in the everyday business of human living create a continuum rather than a dichotomy regarding issues of control and power, leading to a dissolution of our taxing "control or be controlled" dilemma. Such an ontology clearly entails rethinking some prominent cultural ideals, leading us perhaps to think as much or more in terms of character than achievement, of cooperation than competition, of patience than striving restlessly to get somewhere. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of The Robot's Rebellion: Finding Meaning in the Age of Darwin.

Review of book The Robot's Rebellion: Finding Meaning in the Age of Darwin by Keith E. Stanovich (see record 2004-95228-000). In his interesting scholarly book, The Robot's Rebellion, Stanovich leads us on a journey to find meaning in a world populated by mortal biological vehicles, the robots, put on earth to replicate their masters' selfish genes. If the genes do a satisfactory job programming the robots, then the genes replicate in perpetuity and are, therefore, immortal. Stanovich's basic assumptions are: a) vehicles are designed to replicate genes; b) at least in human animals, the brain houses two minds; c) the first mind, System 1 or The Autonomous Set of Systems, evolved much earlier in evolutionary history than did the second mind, System 2 or the Analytic System; d) System 1 is associative, parallel, fast to respond, and designed to automatically serve its genetic master; e) System 2 is rule-based, serial, slow to respond, not aware of System 1 functioning but sometimes privy to System 1 output, controls executive functioning, and is capable of self-evaluation and leading the rebellion against its genetic master; and, f) memes, culturally generated ideas passed on by nongenetic means, can sometimes be as effective as System 1 at squashing the rebellion. These assumptions are derived from work in cognitive science and evolutionary biology, and provide a solid foundation for the book. Both the metaphor and the basic assumptions are embedded in detailed and informative reviews of decision theory, evolutionary psychology, memetic theory, rational philosophy, and utility theory. The interweaving of metaphor and review provides a framework that allows Stanovich to make inferences to help the general reader understand "the implications of modern science" (p. xi). He also develops criteria to evaluate memes that are needed in his quest to find meaning in human existence. In combination with the basic assumptions, these criteria are used to create an ethical ideology that will be embraced by some readers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Using Bion.

This article attempts to restore a dialogue that has been made difficult to conduct as a result of Bion's role as an established authority on groups and on thinking. Whereas his theory of "basic assumptions" presumes a fundamental level of group motivation, existing below social and interpersonal interactions, the work of Alderfer calls attention to the profound importance of "identity groups" in charting group behavior, and the work of Agazarian notes the fluid formations of "subgroups". Similarly, Bion's theory of thinking appears rooted in biological processes beneath social interaction. Hamilton calls attention to the elements of ambiguity and play, stressed by Winnicott. Cavell, furthermore, notes the role of relationships and triangulation in the development of judgment, fundamental to thinking, a role stressed in current philosophy as well as infant-mother research. In both cases, Bion's theories are seen to neglect the role of interpersonal and social relationships in shaping behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Biology as technology: A social constructionist framework for an evolutionary psychology.

The analogy between biology and engineering in evolutionary psychology is argued to be insightful but limited. A broader analogy is therefore proposed called "biology as technology." Biological evolution, that is, is best understood as the design and production of technical systems rather than engineered mechanisms. On that basis, a social constructionist theory of technology is used to found a revised analogy. This theory distinguishes primary instrumentalization processes of functionalization from secondary instrumentalization processes that realize technical systems in surrounding contexts. Using this framework, the revised analogy bridges between adaptationist accounts in standard evolutionary psychology and interactionist accounts critical of standard evolutionary psychology. Implications of this revised analogy for the evolution of mindedness and sociality are identified and discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Psychology of Worldviews.

A worldview (or "world view") is a set of assumptions about physical and social reality that may have powerful effects on cognition and behavior. Lacking a comprehensive model or formal theory up to now, the construct has been underused. This article advances theory by addressing these gaps. Worldview is defined. Major approaches to worldview are critically reviewed. Lines of evidence are described regarding worldview as a justifiable construct in psychology. Worldviews are distinguished from schemas. A collated model of a worldview's component dimensions is described. An integrated theory of worldview function is outlined, relating worldview to personality traits, motivation, affect, cognition, behavior, and culture. A worldview research agenda is outlined for personality and social psychology (including positive and peace psychology). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lessons from the history of social psychology.

Presents a survey of the metatheoretical perspectives and theory–research areas that constitute the main history of US social psychology. Findings reveal the individual to be at the center of the most widely engaging and influential schools and movements. Conversely, theories and research programs that have dealt generally with group or collective phenomena, employing interdependence or other "relational" concepts, have had a less continuous and long-term impact on the field. The individuocentric bias derives mainly from methodological doctrines associated with the concept of psychology as a natural empirical science. It is concluded that theories based on intraindividual processes are inadequate to explain social behavior whose dynamic and structural sources lie in the 3 interdependent contexts of biology, physical ecology, and the sociocultural environment. (90 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of The anatomy of psychotherapy.

Reviews the book, The anatomy of psychotherapy by Lawrence Friedman (see record 1988-97848-000). The authors' aim is to clarify the various theories of psychoanalysis from Freud to the current and to examine in depth the personal features of the analyst in the context of his/her work. With a knowledge of the entire range of psychoanalytic literature rare with most theorists or practitioners, the author reviews the philosophical developments of Freudian theory. He includes in this review some of the frictions, disputes and subtle disagreements within the classical analytic tradition. He then proceeds to describe the most significant of the contemporary deviations from classical theory (e.g., object relations, interpersonal theory, self psychology, action language) and compares and contrasts them with each other. Friedman has long been a commentator on contemporary psychoanalytic developments and he has adapted his many articles into this work. The book itself is organized into six sections, focusing on the personal and theoretical. It is well written but quite dense. Much concentration is needed. I believe that one must have an interest in psychoanalytic theory as well as a rather sophisticated appreciation of it to truly enjoy this book. It is long and detailed and I imagine difficult to get through without an intrinsic interest in the "anatomy" of psychoanalysis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Helen Peak (1900–1985).

Presents an obituary for Helen Peak. Peak was a brilliant scholar, an innovative researcher, and one of the few generalists left in an age of specialization. She helped to build social psychology as a research discipline by bringing the methodologies of the laboratory and of measurement to the study of personality and interpersonal relations. Her scientific contributions began in the 1930s with experiments that were solid contributions to the foundation of behavioral psychology. Her interest in methodology led to her classic chapter, "Problems of Objective Observation" (1953), an account of methods of data collection and analysis. It showed the fundamental assumptions and limitations of scaling procedures and interitem correlations, and considered problems of functional unity. It became a standard source for research workers both in the US and abroad. The major research that occupied Helen Peak in the postwar years was concerned with attitudinal structure and change. Her experiments showed how attitudes could be successfully changed. From this work she developed a general activation theory of both motivational processes and the properties of structure. Peak, in the spirit of Kurt Lewin, helped reunite social psychology with individual psychology in her research and theories on attitudes and motivation—central problems of both disciplines. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some problems with social cognition models: A pragmatic and conceptual analysis.

Empirical articles published between 1997 and 2001 from 4 health psychology journals that tested or applied 1 or more social cognition models (theory of reasoned action, theory of planned behavior, health belief model, and protection motivation theory; N=47) were scrutinized for their pragmatic and conceptual basis. In terms of their pragmatic basis, these 4 models were useful for guiding research. The analysis of their conceptual basis was less positive. First, these models do not enable the generation of hypotheses because their constructs are unspecific; they therefore cannot be tested. Second, they focus on analytic truths rather than synthetic ones, and the conclusions resulting from their application are often true by definition rather than by observation. Finally, they may create and change both cognitions and behavior rather than describe them. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Salvation and its vicissitudes: Clinical psychology and political values.

Considers that the reluctance to discuss value implications in clinical psychology, and to regard it as value-free, stems from 2 sources: (a) the emphasis on psychology as a value-free science, and (b) the desire for independent and respectable professional image. Nevertheless, it is argued that the practice of clinical psychology has direct political implications, which are then outlined. Most clinical orientations today adopt a social control approach, which concentrates on individual maladjustment rather than system malfunctioning. Defining problems as personal or intrapersonal, rather than interpersonal or political, neutralizes potential threats to present political structures. Psychology then becomes parallel to religion in that it offers individual salvation, and not social or political change. Several recent developments, and especially the new understanding of personal problems in members of minority groups and women, are seen as possibly changing the political impact of clinical practice. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

John Dewey and human development.

John Dewey (1859–1952) was an American philosopher-psychologist of international acclaim. Although he did not greatly influence early American psychology, Dewey's relevance to contemporary psychology is manifold. He identified the problem of social psychology as the relationship between human nature and changing social circumstances, proposed means and a rationale to broaden the empiricism of psychology to encompass domains outside of the traditional laboratory setting, suggested that functional rather than structural characteristics differentiate childish from adult reasoning, and proposed a theory of noninevitable child development in which social values and practices play essential roles. Dewey proposed that by elucidating mechanisms for realizing desired values, psychology can be an empirically based instrument for promoting human development and social progress in a democratic society. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The potential role of theory in the training of applied social psychologists.

There are a number of deficiencies in contemporary social-psychological theory as both a knowledge base and a guide for research and practice in applied social psychology. In principle, theory should be integrated with research and practice and should serve both a knowledge building and a guiding function for the discipline. In practice, much contemporary theory, based on laboratory experiments on intra- and interpersonal processes, is limited in its capacity to explain complex, real-world social behaviour. This paper discusses the actual and potential role of social-psychological theory in applied social psychology in relation to graduate training. A graduate programme offering the M.A. and Ph.D. is described in terms of objectives, requirements, and job placements. A survey of graduates is also reported. The role of theory in training M.A. students is problematic: theses are often atheoretical with an emphasis on research methodology, particularly programme evaluation. The Ph.D. programme requires the integration of theory with research and consultation activities and is attempting to increase the use of theory in the development of social programmes, the amelioration of social problems, and the formation of social policy. It is proposed that social-psychological theories covering several levels of analysis are necessary to understand social behaviour and to provide an adequate base for applied training. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social psychology in an era of social change.

Discusses the role and method of social psychology in a situation of constant change. The social psychologist is presented as a "specialist in unnoticed causes" concentrating on the question rather than the answers. Risk-taking is emphasized as the method to answer questions thus generated. Continual reordering of data and theory allow social psychology to remain relevant. The self- and other-consciousness of the social psychologist are examined. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The histor(y/ies) of social psycholog(y/ies).

No simple blueprint exists fur writing a, let alone the, history of psychology. Papers at the International Conference on the History of Social Psychology (Paris, April, l991) reflected differing methodologies, cultural perspectives, and purposes in writing histor(y/ies) and upon social psycholog(y/ies)'s nature as a singular/ plural and/or universalist/relativist. Historical recovery of such lost themes as language, the uses and abuses of interpersonal influence and political power, and trans-generational influences, may enrich social psychology beyond its current specialized narrowness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The substance and the shadow.

Discusses the relationship between advancing technology (the substance) and good scientific theory (the shadow) in industrial/organizational psychology. Solutions presented for bridging the gap between social science and social technology include utilization of a teamwork approach to understanding problems of human abilities, motivations, and interpersonal behavior. Avoiding being prematurely "locked into" a concept before all alternatives are considered, and the incorporation of real-world data into controlled experimental settings, are advocated. Other methods include construction of models and theories that can be revised and updated as new data are supplied, and the strengthening of informational links between the 2 disciplines. (74 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)