Specific Contact Resistance Measurement of Screen-Printed Ag Metal Contacts Formed on Heavily Doped Emitter Region in Multicrystalline Silicon Solar Cells

Multicrystalline silicon (mc-Si) wafers are widely used to develop low-cost high-efficiency screen-printed solar cells. In this study, the electrical properties of screen-printed Ag metal contacts formed on heavily doped emitter region in mc-Si solar cells have been investigated. Sintering of the screen-printed metal contacts was performed by a co-firing step at 725°C in air ambient followed by low-temperature annealing at 450°C for 15 min. Measurement of the specific contact resistance (ρ _c) of the Ag contacts was performed by the three-point probe method, showing a best value of ρ _c = 1.02 × 10^?4 Ω cm² obtained for the Ag contacts. This value is considered as a good figure of merit for screen-printed Ag electrodes formed on a doped mc-Si surface. The plot of ρ _c versus the inverse of the square root of the surface doping level (N _s ^?½ ) follows a linear relationship for impurity doping levels N _s ≥ 10¹⁹ atoms/cm³. The power losses due to current traveling through various resistive components of finished solar cells were calculated by using standard expressions. Cross-sectional scanning electron microscopy (SEM) views of the Ag metal and doped mc-Si region show that the Ag metal is firmly coalesced with the doped mc-Si surface upon sintering at an optimum firing temperature of 725°C.     

Thermoelectric Properties of Al-Doped ZnO Thin Films

We have prepared 2 % Al-doped ZnO (AZO) thin films on SrTiO₃ substrates by a pulsed laser deposition technique at various deposition temperatures (T _dep = 300–600 °C). The thermoelectric properties of AZO thin films were studied in a low temperature range (300–600 K). Thin film deposited at 300 °C is fully c-axis-oriented and presents electrical conductivity 310 S/cm with Seebeck coefficient ?65 μV/K and power factor 0.13 × 10^?3 Wm^?1 K^?2 at 300 K. The performance of thin films increases with temperature. For instance, the power factor is enhanced up to 0.55 × 10^?3 Wm^?1 K^?2 at 600 K, surpassing the best AZO film previously reported in the literature.     

Microstructure and Electrical Properties of K0.5Na0.5NbO3-LiSbO3-BiFeO3-x %molZnO Lead-Free Piezoelectric Ceramics

Lead-free piezoelectric ceramics {0.996[(0.95(K_0.5Na_0.5)NbO₃-0.05LiSbO₃]-0.004BiFeO₃}-xmol%ZnO were prepared through a conventional ceramics sintering technique. The effect of ZnO content on structure, microstructure, and piezoelectric properties of KNN-LS-BF ceramics was investigated. The results reveal that ZnO as a sintering aid is very effective in promoting sinterability and electrical properties of the ceramics sintered at a low temperature of 1,020 °C. The ceramics show a single-perovskite structure with predominant tetragonal phase, and coexistence of orthorhombic and tetragonal phases is observed for x = 2.5–3.0. The addition of ZnO causes abnormal grain growth. A dense microstructure is also obtained at x = 2.0 because the relative density reaches up to 94.6 %. The morphotropic phase boundary and dense microstructure lead to significant enhancement of the piezoelectric properties. The ceramic with x = 1.5 exhibits optimum electrical properties as follows: d ₃₃ = 280 pC/N, k _p = 46 %, Q _m = 40.8, P _r = 25 μC/cm², E _c = 1.2 kV/mm, and T _c = 340 °C.     

Contact resistivity of amorphous and crystalline GeCu2Te3 to W electrode for phase change random access memory

We have investigated the contact resistivity of GeCu₂Te₃ (GCT) phase change material to a W electrode using the circular transfer length method (CTLM). The contact resistivity ρ_c of as-deposited amorphous GCT to W was 3.9×10⁻² Ω cm². The value of ρ_c drastically decreased upon crystallization and crystalline GCT that annealed at 300 °C showed a ρ_c of 4.8×10⁻⁶ Ω cm². The ρ_c contrast between amorphous (as-deposited) and crystalline (annealed at 300 °C) states was larger in GCT than in conventional Ge₂Sb₂Te₅ (GST). Consequently, it was suggested from a calculation based on a simple vertical structure memory cell model that a GCT memory cell shows a four times larger resistance contrast than a GST memory cell.     

Enhanced Thermoelectric Properties of Antimony Telluride Thin Films with Preferred Orientation Prepared by Sputtering a Fan-Shaped Binary Composite Target

p-Type antimony telluride (Sb₂Te₃) thermoelectric thin films were deposited on BK7 glass substrates by ion beam sputter deposition using a fan-shaped binary composite target. The deposition temperature was varied from 100°C to 300°C in increments of 50°C. The influence of the deposition temperature on the microstructure, surface morphology, and thermoelectric properties of the thin films was systematically investigated. x-Ray diffraction results show that various alloy composition phases of the Sb₂Te₃ materials are grown when the deposition temperature is lower than 200°C. Preferred c-axis orientation of the Sb₂Te₃ thin film became obvious when the deposition temperature was above 200°C, and thin film with single-phase Sb₂Te₃ was obtained when the deposition temperature was 250°C. Scanning electron microscopy reveals that the average grain size of the films increases with increasing deposition temperature and that the thin film deposited at 250°C shows rhombohedral shape corresponding to the original Sb₂Te₃ structure. The room-temperature Seebeck coefficient and electrical conductivity range from 101 μV K^?1 to 161 μV K^?1 and 0.81 × 10³ S cm^?1 to 3.91 × 10³ S cm^?1, respectively, as the deposition temperature is increased from 100°C to 300°C. An optimal power factor of 6.12 × 10^?3 W m^?1 K^?2 is obtained for deposition temperature of 250°C. The thermoelectric properties of Sb₂Te₃ thin films have been found to be strongly enhanced when prepared using the fan-shaped binary composite target method with an appropriate substrate temperature.     

Texturing of (Bi0.2Sb0.8)2Te3 Nanopowders by Open Die Pressing

Open die pressing (ODP) at 370°C to 420°C has been employed as a straightforward forming process for sintering and texturing p-type (Bi_0.2Sb_0.8)₂Te₃ nanopowders. x-Ray diffraction pattern analysis showed that ODP samples were strongly textured, with the basal (00l) planes of the hexagonal crystal cell oriented parallel to the pressing plates. The degree of texturing, evaluated as the orientation factor, f, by the Lotgering method, increased with decreasing final thickness of the samples. It was about f = 45% for 10-mm-thick samples and reached 70% for 2-mm-thick samples. Thermoelectric properties of ODP specimens were measured by the Harman method in the range from 20°C to 170°C. The dimensionless figure of merit, ZT, for 10-mm-thick samples was around 1 from room temperature up to 100°C.     

Effect of Sintering Temperature on Microstructure, Electrical Properties, and Thermal Expansion of Perovskite-Type La0.8Ca0.2CrO3 Complex Oxides Synthesized by a Combustion Method

Perovskite-type La_0.8Ca_0.2CrO₃ complex oxides were synthesized by a combustion method. Microstructural evolution, electrical properties, and thermal expansion behavior of the ceramics were investigated in the sintering temperature range of 1250°C to 1450°C. It was found that the electrical conductivity (σ _e) remarkably improved with increasing sintering temperature from 1250°C to 1400°C, ascribed to the development of microstructural densification, whereas it declined slightly above 1400°C due to generation of excessive liquid. The specimen sintered at 1400°C had a maximum conductivity of 31.6 S cm^?1 at 800°C, and lowest activation energy of 0.148 eV. The improvement of the thermal expansion coefficient (TEC) with increasing sintering temperature was monotonic as a result of the microstructural densification of the materials. The TEC of La_0.8Ca_0.2CrO₃ sintered at 1400°C was about 10.5 × 10^?6 K^?1, being consistent with other components as high-temperature conductors. With respect to microstructure, electrical properties, and thermal expansion, the preferable sintering temperature was ascertained to be about 1400°C, which is much lower than for the traditional solid-state reaction method.     

Dependence of Site Occupancy and Structural and Electrical Properties on Successive Replacement of Co by Zn in CoFe2O4

The crystal structure and cation distribution at particular sites in the crystal lattice play the primary role in determining the properties of nanocrystalline transition-metal oxide materials. Nanocrystalline ferrite particles of Co_1?x Zn _x Fe₂O₄ with x varying from 0.0 to 1.0 were synthesized by a coprecipitation method. Samples synthesized at the reaction temperature of 70°C were sintered at 600°C for 3 h. The face-centered cubic (FCC) spinel structure of the synthesized particles was confirmed by x-ray diffraction patterns. The grain sizes calculated from the most intense peak (311) using the Scherrer equation were found to be in the range from 10 nm to 35 nm. Extended x-ray absorption fine-structure and x-ray absorption near-edge structure spectroscopy is a powerful tool for structural study of metal oxide materials. These techniques are element specific and sensitive to the local structure. These techniques were used at Fe, Co, and Zn K-edges to investigate the cation distribution in the crystal structure. The dependence of the electrical transport properties on the shift in the crystal structure due to successive replacement of Co by Zn in CoFe₂O₄ was examined. Direct-current (dc) electrical conduction measurements were carried out as a function of temperature from 313 K to 700 K. Activation energy values indicated the polaron hopping conduction mechanism. The alternating-current (ac) electrical transport properties were studied by measuring the dielectric constant as a function of frequency. A regular shift?in the electrical properties was observed depending upon the cation distribution.     

Properties of Flame Sprayed Ce0.8Gd0.2O1.9‐δ Electrolyte Thin Films

Thin films of Ce_0.8Gd_0.2O_1.9‐δ (CGO) are deposited by flame spray deposition with a deposition rate of about 30 nm min^?1. The films (deposited at 200 °C) are dense, smooth, and particle‐free and show a biphasic amorphous/nanocrystalline microstructure. Isothermal grain growth and microstrain are determined as a function of dwell time and temperature and correlated to the electrical conductivity. CGO films annealed for 10 h at 600 °C present the best electrical conductivity of 0.46 S m^?1 measured at 550 °C. Reasons for the superior performance of films annealed at low temperature over higher‐temperature‐treated samples are discussed and include grain‐size evolution, microstrain relaxation, and chemical decomposition. Nanoindentation measurements are conducted on the CGO thin films as a function of annealing temperature to determine the hardness and elastic modulus of the films for potential application as free‐standing electrolyte membranes in low‐temperature micro‐SOFCs (solid oxide fuel cells).     

Development of 3.7 % Efficient Cu2ZnSnSe4 Solar Cells by Selenizing Cu-Zn-Sn Films Deposited by DC Sputtering on TiN-Protected Mo/Glass Substrates

Cu₂ZnSnSe₄ (CZTSe) films for solar cell devices were fabricated by sputtering of a Cu-Zn-Sn target followed by post-selenization at 500–600 °C for 1 h in the presence of single or double compensation discs to supply Se vapor. The optimized selenization conditions avoided the Se deficiency and enhanced the grain growth of CZTSe films. The 600 °C-selenized CZTSe films adjacent with double discs obtained the large grains of 2–5 μm and had a [Cu]/([Zn]+[Sn]) ratio of 0.94 and a [Zn]/[Sn] ratio of 1.34. In order to fabricate the device on Mo-coated glass substrates, a TiN reaction barrier layer was coated before the Cu-Zn-Sn sputtering coating. The TiN-CZTSe device had 3.7 % efficiency (η), as compared to 0.58 % for the TiN-free one. The efficient device had the CZTSe layer with hole concentration (n _p) of 3.4 × 10¹⁷ cm^?3, Hall mobility (μ) of 54 cm² V^?1 s^?1, and electrical conductivity (σ) of 2.9 Ω^?1 cm^?1.     

Low-Temperature Synthesis and Thermoelectric Properties of n-Type PbTe

n-Type PbTe compounds were synthesized at temperatures as low as 430°C. After synthesis, the materials were ground, cold pressed, and sintered at 600°C. The effect of this low-temperature synthesis on the structural features and thermoelectric properties of as-prepared and PbI₂-doped materials was investigated for the first time. The Seebeck coefficient, and electrical and thermal conductivity were measured in the temperature range 2 K ≤ T ≤  610 K. The results show that all materials exhibit n-type conduction and the thermoelectric properties are improved by doping. ZT values reach 0.5 at 610 K, and the discrepancies with the literature are discussed.     

Paradoxical Enhancement of the Power Factor of Polycrystalline Silicon as a Result of the Formation of Nanovoids

Hole-containing silicon has been regarded as a viable candidate thermoelectric material because of its low thermal conductivity. However, because voids are efficient scattering centers not just for phonons but also for charge carriers, achievable power factors (PFs) are normally too low for its most common form, i.e. porous silicon, to be of practical interest. In this communication we report that high PFs can, indeed, be achieved with nanoporous structures obtained from highly doped silicon. High PFs, up to a huge 22 mW K^?2 m^?1 (more than six times higher than values for the bulk material), were observed for heavily boron-doped nanocrystalline silicon films in which nanovoids (NVs) were generated by He⁺ ion implantation. In contrast with single-crystalline silicon in which He⁺ implantation leads to large voids, in polycrystalline films implantation followed by annealing at 1000°C results in homogeneous distribution of NVs with final diameters of approximately 2 nm and densities of the order of 10¹⁹ cm^?3 with average spacing of 10 nm. Study of its morphology revealed silicon nanograins 50 nm in diameter coated with 5-nm precipitates of SiB _x . We recently reported that PFs up to 15 mW K^?2 m^?1 could be achieved for silicon–boron nanocomposites (without NVs) because of a simultaneous increase of electrical conductivity and Seebeck coefficient. In that case, the high Seebeck coefficient was achieved as a result of potential barriers on the grain boundaries, and high electrical conductivity was achieved as a result of extremely high levels of doping. The additional increase in the PF observed in the presence of NVs (which also include SiB _x precipitates) might have several possible explanations; these are currently under investigation. Experimental results are reported which might clarify the reason for this paradoxical effect of NVs on silicon PF.     

Titanium Disilicide as High-Temperature Contact Material for Thermoelectric Generators

Thermoelectric devices can be used to capture electric power from waste heat in a variety of applications. The theoretical efficiency rises with the temperature difference across the thermoelectric generator (TEG). Therefore, we have investigated contact materials to maximize the thermal stability of a TEG. A promising candidate is titanium disilicide (TiSi₂), which has been well known as a contact material in silicon technology for some time, having low resistivity and thermal stability up to 1150 K. A demonstrator using highly doped silicon as the thermoelectric material has been integrated. A p- and an n-type wafer were oxidized and bonded. After cutting the wafer into pieces, a 200-nm-thick titanium layer was sputtered onto the edges. After a 750°C rapid thermal annealing step, the TEG legs were connected by a highly conductive TiSi₂ layer. A TEG with 12 thermal couples was integrated, and its joint resistance was found to be 4.2 Ω. Hence, we have successfully demonstrated a functional high-temperature contact for TEGs up to at least 900 K. Nevertheless, the actual thermal stability will be even higher. The process could be transfered to other substrates by using amorphous silicon deposited by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition.     

Synthesis and Optical Properties of Si-Rich Nitride Containing Silicon Quantum Dots

Hydrogenated silicon-rich nitride films were deposited by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition using NH₃ and SiH₄. As-deposited samples were thermally annealed under different conditions in argon ambient. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy was carried out to investigate the bonding configurations, and Raman scattering spectroscopy was used to study the microstructures and confirm the presence of Si quantum dots (QDs). We found that a near-stoichiometric silicon nitride matrix was formed after high-temperature processing. When the annealing temperature reached 1100°C, the degree of crystallinity (X _c) increased to 51.6% for the 60-min sample compared with 46.1% for the 30-min sample. Red-light and yellow-light emission were obtained from the samples annealed at 1100°C for 30 min and 60 min, respectively. The emission mechanism is dominated by excitons confined within the Si QDs. The ultra-nanocrystals play an important role in the luminescence blue-shift. We measured the bandgap values from optical absorption studies. The increase of the optical bandgap from 1.80 eV to 1.90 eV with increase of the annealing temperature from 950°C to 1100°C is ascribed to the silicon clusters and nitride matrix.     

Enhancing Piezoelectric Performance of CaBi2Nb2O9 Ceramics Through Microstructure Control

Calcium bismuth niobate (CaBi₂Nb₂O₉, CBN) is a high-Curie-temperature (T _C) piezoelectric material with relatively poor piezoelectric performance. Attempts were made to enhance the piezoelectric and direct-current (DC) resistive properties of CBN ceramics by increasing their density and controlling their microstructural texture, which were achieved by combining the templated grain growth and hot pressing methods. The modified CBN ceramics with 97.5% relative density and 90.5% Lotgering factor had much higher piezoelectric constant (d ₃₃ = 20 pC/N) than those prepared by the normal sintering process (d ₃₃ = 6 pC/N). High-temperature alternating-current (AC) impedance spectroscopy of the CBN ceramics was measured by using an impedance/gain-phase analyzer. Their electrical resistivity was approximately 6.5 × 10⁴ Ω cm at 600°C. Therefore, CBN ceramics can be used for high-temperature piezoelectric applications.     

Thermoelectric and Mechanical Properties of Novel Hot-Extruded PbTe n-Type Material

Lead telluride-based materials demonstrate the highest thermoelectric performance in the temperature range from 200°C to 400°C, and they are of interest for numerous waste heat recovery applications. Unfortunately, these conventionally grown materials are usually very brittle, which results in significant material loss during module manufacturing and a decrease in module reliability when subjected to continuous vibrations common for automotive applications. We present a hot extrusion process developed for the first time for PbTe which yields polycrystalline materials with strong mechanical properties combined with high thermoelectric performance. n-Type lead telluride was extruded from conventionally synthesized and powdered material at temperatures in the range of 450°C to 520°C depending on material stoichiometry. The extruded rods were of cylindrical shape with 2.54?cm diameter and lengths up to 40?cm. Young??s modulus measured using mechanical spectroscopy varied from 59?GPa to 51?GPa for temperatures in the range of 20°C to 300°C. Slicing and dicing of extruded rods to obtain cubical samples with 2?mm side demonstrated no difficulties, illustrating the material homogeneity and its potential for manufacturing module legs. The microstructure of the material was studied by scanning electron microscopy. Doping with antimony iodide during the milling process controls the conduction electron concentration in the range from 1?×?10¹⁹?cm^?3 to 6?×?10¹⁹?cm^?3. For optimized doping of 0.08?wt.% SbI₃, the maximum thermoelectric figure of merit (ZT) reaches a value of 0.99 at 380°C, as measured by the Harman method. The combination of high thermoelectric performance and improved fracture toughness makes this novel hot-extruded polycrystalline PbTe material highly competitive for many applications.     

Thermoelectric Properties of Light-Element-Containing Zintl Compounds CaZn2−x Cu x P2 and CaMnZn1−x Cu x P2 (x = 0.0–0.2)

Light-element-containing CaAl₂Si₂-type Zintl phases CaZn_2?x Cu _x P₂ and CaMnZn_1?x Cu _x P₂ (x = 0.0–0.2) have been synthesized by solid-state reaction. Electrical resistivity (ρ), Seebeck coefficient (α), and thermal conductivity (κ) were measured over a wide temperature (T) range (80–1000 K) to evaluate the thermoelectric potential of these materials. Below 300 K, the power factor (PF; α ²/ρ) is very small. Above 600 K, however, PF increases rapidly for all compositions because of a rapid increase of α and a simultaneous decrease of ρ. The measured large α is consistent with the wider band gap expected for these compositions. Compared with the pure compounds, larger PF values are observed for the Cu-substituted compounds; the largest observed PF is ～0.5 mW/m K². The thermal conductivity is found to be rather low, despite the presence of light elements, and is in the range 1.0–1.5 W/m K at 1000 K. Because of the combination of low κ and moderate PF values, the dimensionless figure of merit ZT = α ² T/ρκ reaches a maximum of 0.4 for CaZn_1.9Cu_0.1P₂.     

Investigation of Structural and Electrical Properties of B-Site Complex Ion (Mg1/3Nb2/3)4+-Modified High-Curie-Temperature BiFeO3-BaTiO3 Ceramics

B-site complex ion (Mg_1/3Nb_2/3)-modified high-temperature ceramics 0.71BiFeO₃-0.29BaTi_1?x (Mg_1/3Nb_2/3) _x O₃ (BF-BTMNx) have been fabricated by the conventional solid-state reaction method. The compositional dependence of the?phase structure, electrical properties, and depolarization temperature of the ceramics was studied. The main phase structure of BF-BTMNx ceramics is perovskite phase with pseudocubic symmetry. The experimental results show that the dielectric and piezoelectric properties, and temperature stability strongly depend on the (Mg_1/3Nb_2/3)⁴⁺ content. The optimum (Mg_1/3Nb_2/3) content enhances the piezoelectric properties, Curie temperature, and depolarization temperature. The ceramic with x = 1% exhibited enhanced electrical properties of d ₃₃ = 158 pC/N and k _p = 0.322, combined with high-temperature stability with Curie temperature of T _c = 453°C and depolarization temperature of T _d = 400°C. These results show that the ceramic with x = 1% is a promising lead-free high-temperature piezoelectric material.     

Grain-Oriented Ca3Co4O9 Thermoelectric Oxide Ceramics Prepared by Solid-State Reaction

We studied a method to enhance the degree of grain orientation of Ca₃Co₄O₉ thermoelectric oxide ceramics. Ceramic specimens were prepared by solid-state reaction with different growth conditions. Large-grained Ca₃Co₄O₉ powders were obtained by using “heavy-calcination” and “moderate-grinding” steps before pelletizing, and these large-grained powders contributed to the enhancement of the degree of orientation. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observation results showed that plate-like crystal grains were stacked up in layers for the heavily calcined ceramics, while no such anisotropic structure was found for those that were lightly calcined. x-Ray diffraction (XRD) analysis also indicated that the specimen obtained by heavy-calcination and moderate-grinding steps had a high degree of (002) orientation. The effect of the heavy-calcination and moderate-grinding steps was clearly evidenced by the electrical resistivity ρ. The electrical resistivity ρ at 700°C for the higher-oriented ceramics was 73% of that for the lower-oriented ceramics. Since ρ was reduced without deterioration of the Seebeck coefficient S, the power factor (S ²/ρ) at 700°C for the former was increased by 29% compared with that for the latter.     

Effect of Heat Treatments on the Structural and Magnetic Properties of La-Co Substituted Strontium Ferrite Films

A sputter-deposited strontium ferrite film with perpendicular anisotropy has been developed. The film, composed of La_0.33Sr_0.67Co_0.25Fe_11.75O₁₉, has been fabricated directly on quartz glass substrates by radio frequency magnetron sputtering with various heat treatments. The structural and magnetic property dependence of those films on heat treatments has also been studied. The optimized condition is the heat treatment of in situ heating at 400°C and post-annealing at 850°C–900°C. When post-annealing temperature exceeds 900°C, parasitic phases of γ-Fe₂O₃ and LaFeO₃ appear and gradually increase; meanwhile, the magneto plumbite phase gradually decreases. High c-axis perpendicularly oriented films with the coercivity (4148 Oe), remanence squareness ratio (0.89) and perpendicular magnetic anisotropy energy density (1.65 × 10⁶ erg/cm³) are achieved, which is attributed to the single magneto plumbite phase with compact platelet grains and almost complete (0 0 l) texture of the c-axis normal to the film plane.