The fractal analysis of water trees: an estimate of the fractaldimension

Water trees result from ac electrical aging of the polymeric insulation of medium and HV power cables in a humid or wet environment. As suggested by their name, they arise from penetration of water in the polymer. Visual observation with the help of an optical microscope shows tree (bush) type structures. This suggests that water trees might be fractal objects. Calculation of the fractal dimension from experimental samples may confirm the fractal characteristics and also give information on the damage caused to the polymer. In this work images of water trees taken under the optical microscope, dyed by methylene blue and etched for scanning electron microscopy (SEM), were studied in order to estimate the fractal dimension using a box-counting algorithm. The photographs, made using an optical microscope (scale of 100 μm), of the dyed samples were obtained from laboratory-aged low-density polyethylene (LDPE) specimens using accelerated techniques. Different field amplitude and frequency and also time of aging were used and the dimension values were compared. SEM images resulting from aged cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables revealed a structure at a different scale (~3 μm). Each photograph was analyzed to compare regions with and without water trees     

Condition assessment of 12- and 24-kV XLPE cables installed during the 80s. Results from a joint Norwegian/Swedish research project

This paper reports the results from the condition assessment of 12- and 24-kV cross-linked polyethylene (XPLE) cables using a technique based on dielectric spectroscopy initially developed at KTH in Sweden. The work aims to examine whether the method could detect water tree degradation for the second generation medium voltage (MV) cables with long, but not bridging, water trees. While the overall cable condition was better than expected for second generation XPLE cables, water trees were found in most of the selected cables. The diagnostic method based on the measurement of the dielectric response could only detect water tree degradation in the examined second generation cables when the water trees bridged the insulation wall. Condition assessment above service stress may, in some cases, be required to detect bridging water trees. The results indicate that there is a correlation between the voltage level and the breakdown voltage of the cable. This can be used as a diagnostic criterion for this group of cables.     

Silver tree

In this paper, AgNO₃ (silver nitrate) solution was used as liquid electrode to accelerate the growth of water trees in polyethylene. It was found that water trees grown in AgNO₃ solution can be colored spontaneously during their formation, their areas are brownish-yellow, and they grow fast. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed microchannels in the AgNO₃-grown water tree with diameters from 0.2 to 0.5 μm. In fact, these microchannels are possibly filled with metallic silver reduced from silver ions, and these water trees are referred to as `silver trees'. The structure of the silver trees is studied and analyzed in comparison with sulfide trees and blue water trees. The effects of silver ions (Ag ⁺) in the silver tree region are investigated and a comparison is made with other ions such as K⁺, Na⁺, Mg⁺⁺, and Cu⁺⁺ in water trees. The trees from AgNO₃ solution grow much faster than trees from the other solutions. Finally, the mechanism of the formation of silver trees is suggested     

Investigation of Water Tree Degradation in Dry‐Cured and Extruded Three‐Layer (E‐E Type) 6.6‐kV Removed XLPE Cables

Dry‐cured and extruded three‐layer (E‐E type) 6.6‐kV cross‐linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables were introduced into electric power systems more than 30 years ago, but they do not experience failures because of water tree degradation. Also, the degradation index of water treeing for these cables has not been established. Therefore, investigating results of residual breakdown voltage and water tree degradation of these cables will help us plan for cable replacement and determine water tree degradation diagnosis scheduling, and will be fundamental data for cable lifetime evaluation. In this study, the authors measured the ac breakdown voltages of dry‐cured and E‐E type 6.6‐kV XLPE cables removed after 18 to 25 years of operation and observed the water trees in their XLPE insulation. As a result, it was observed that breakdown voltages were larger than the maximum operating voltage (6.9 kV) and the ac voltage for the dielectric withstanding test (10.3 kV). Water trees were mainly bow‐tie water trees and their maximum length was approximately 1 mm. Although the number of measured cables was limited, the lifetime of this type of cable was estimated to be approximately 40 years, even experiencing water immersion.     

Development of water tree structure in polyester resin

It is commonly accepted that water trees can be initiated and developed within insulation by the simultaneous action of moisture and alternating electric field. Despite the appreciable achievements and extensive works in the field of water treeing, there is no definite mechanism explaining its initiation and development. In this work, the results of a regular optical examination of the detailed structure of water trees are reported. Various patterns of water droplets are clearly illustrated before the initiation of water trees. The role of water absorption, as a main source of the tree, is not limited to the initial stage of tree formation but it is important for the creation of channels in the later stages. This idea is highlighted via a number of photographs, describing the main stages of the building process of water trees. New evidences on the mechanisms interpreting the development of water trees are introduced. Finally, the relationship between the obtained patterns of water filled voids and the subsequent shapes of water trees is discussed     

Analysis of water trees in underground HV cables using the KFUPMmicro-PIXE facility

Scanning with the micro-PIXE technique was employed to analyze water trees in the XLPE insulation of a field-aged underground HV cable. X-ray spectra of bow tie and vented water trees, the inner and outer semiconductive compounds, and an insulation spot free from any water tree were acquired. Simultaneously, two-dimensional elemental distribution profiles across the water trees were also measured. Various trace element impurities were identified in the analyzed spots and their possible sources are suggested. Differences in elemental distribution profiles in the scanned areas were observed and have been discussed on the basis of the mechanism of incorporation of these elements into the insulation. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of the micro-PIXE facility available in this laboratory in analyzing water trees in underground power cables     

A water treeing model

A new model for water treeing is introduced. It assumes that when the field-induced stress applied on nano cavities filled with a liquid is larger than the yield strength of the polymer, bonds will be broken and the nano cavity will expand. The growth of the water trees is enhanced by the fatigue induced by the alternating electric field. The diffusion of the liquid is also a parameter affecting the water tree length. A simple equation relating the water tree length with field, time, frequency, and the nature of the solution is presented. A very good agreement between theory and experiments for a wide variety of results obtained with low density polyethylene (LDPE) tested under various fields, frequencies and ionic solutions is observed. This model also predicts the growth of water trees under DC fields after very long times or after many polarity reversals. Some aspects of this model requiring further refinements or experimental data are also pointed out.     

The chemical composition of water trees in EPR cable insulation

The earlier observation of carboxylate ions in vented water trees in service-aged XLPE cable insulation is extended to bow-tie trees in lab-aged XLPE cable insulation, and to bow-tie and vented trees in EPR cable and slab specimens. Carboxylate anions were the major carbonyl-containing functionality in the treed regions, except for cases where ester functionalities (from antioxidants or shield materials) or aromatic carbonyl species (curative residues) had accumulated. Ketonic oxidation products were detected, but at a lower level than carboxylates. The experimental difficulty of detecting carboxylate ions in the presence of interfering absorptions from methylene blue dye and clay filler was circumvented by the use of a derivatization technique involving sulfur tetrafluoride and with hydrogen chloride, which converted carboxylate ions to acid fluorides and carboxylic acids respectively. Some examples of initiation sites for water tree formation in EPR are provided. When a particulate initiation site of bow-tie trees in EPR could be identified, a common feature was the presence of transition metal ions     

交联聚乙烯电缆中的水树

水树对交联聚乙烯电缆运行寿命有害。本文通过在交联聚乙烯绝缘料试片和原尺寸交联聚乙烯电缆上进行的加速水树引发试验,观察研究水树枝的生长特性,比较二种不同交联方法对水树生长的影响。最后探讨了形成水树的可能机理。     

低密度聚乙烯/纳米蒙脱土复合材料的水树枝生长特性

低密度聚乙烯是高压电力电缆的主要绝缘材料,水树枝生长特性与聚乙烯高压电力电缆绝缘击穿具有紧密联系。采用熔融插层复合法制备了一种低密度聚乙烯/蒙脱土纳米复合材料;设计制作了纳米复合材料的水树枝老化试样及试验装置,在试验中观测了试样的水树枝生长长度,并对试样的水树枝引发率进行了统计,分析了低密度聚乙烯/蒙脱土纳米复合材料的吸水率对水树枝生长的影响;采用差示扫描热法分析了试样的结晶度和晶粒尺寸均匀性,通过分析低密度聚乙烯/蒙脱土纳米复合材料的结晶行为,说明了纳米蒙脱土对纳米复合材料中水树枝的抑制机理。试验与分析结果表明:掺杂质量分数为3%的纳米蒙脱土粒子能够有效地提高低密度聚乙烯的结晶度,使晶粒尺寸分布均匀,吸水率减小,延缓水树枝在低密度聚乙烯中的引发与生长。     

Computation of the Electric Field in Cable Insulation in the Presence of Water Trees and Space Charge

The presence of space charge changes locally the electric field distribution in power cable insulation and may play an important role in tree development, thus accelerating the dielectric breakdown. This paper is concerned with the computation of the electric field in polyethylene-insulated power cables affected by water trees which grow from the following: 1) the inner semiconducting layer; 2) the outer semiconducting layer; and 3) the inner and outer semiconducting layers, taking into account the space charge corresponding to the ions present in the treeing area. Space charge in plane samples where trees have been developed in an accelerated manner was estimated using the thermal step method. Average charge values given by space charge measurements were then used for the electric field computation in cable insulation with continuous or/and individual water trees. For the calculation of the electric field, an analytical and a numerical method have been used. This paper shows that the space charge changes the electric field distribution inside and outside the trees (the field increases in some areas and decreases in others) and that the field variations depend on the magnitude and on the polarity of the space charge, as well as on the dimensions of the water trees developed in the cable insulation. The obtained results show that, in the presence of water trees and space charge, the initiation of electric trees is more probable in the case of individual water trees than in the case of continuous water trees.     

The influence of crystalline morphology on the growth of watertrees in PE

A small amount of phenolphthalein, acting as a nucleating agent, was added to low density polyethylene (LDPE) to modify the size and number of spherulites. The crystalline morphology was observed and analyzed with the aid of a chemical etching method. It was found that the growth of water trees is faster in LDPE samples in which spherulites are larger and the number of the spherulites is lower. In contrast, water trees grow more slowly in other LDPE samples in which spherulites are smaller in size and greater in number. On the other hand, three different kinds of additives, weak electrolyte and hydrophilic or hydrophobic substances, were added to the LDPE materials to investigate the influence of typical spherulite boundary regions on the growth of water trees. It was verified experimentally that during the process of crystallization, these three different additives are rejected and finally settled near the spherulite boundaries. Therefore, three kinds of boundary regions with different characteristics are formed. It has been concluded that hydrophillic boundary regions can strongly inhibit the growth of water trees, while the other two boundary regions (weak electrolyte, hydrophobic) have little influence on the water tree growth     

Water treeing in binary linear polyethylene blends: the mechanicalaspect

Water treeing tests were performed on low density polyethylene (LDPE) and four different binary blends of sharp linear polyethylene (LPE) fractions (M_w=2500 and 76000), which were either quenched in air from the melt or isothermally crystallised at 123°C. Although the morphology and initial mechanical properties of the materials tested were significantly different, the vented tree growth characteristics were similar for all of them. This is in disagreement with the electromechanical models of water treeing, which correlate water tree growth with the fracture toughness of the material. Time to breakdown distributions were also similar for both LDPE and the binary LPE blends, which indicates that, regardless of the initial material morphology and the actual structure of water trees, the length of water trees is one of the controlling factors in insulation failure. The visible light image of water trees in LPE blends did not disappear upon drying as it usually does in LDPE and crosslinked polyethylene insulation     

交联聚乙烯电缆水树缺陷的修复方法研究

采用硅氧烷修复液修复交联聚乙烯电缆老化试样中的水树,进而分析修复效果及机理。将介质损耗因数为4%～6%,绝缘电阻7 500～10 000 MΩ的短电缆在7.5 kV 450 Hz交流电压下老化至介质损耗因数达到20%左右,绝缘电阻3 500～5 000 MΩ。然后用压力注入式修复装置把修复液注入缆芯对水树缺陷进行修复。以介质损耗因数、绝缘电阻和击穿电压为指标对修复效果进行评判;通过显微镜切片观察修复前后水树微观形态;通过仿真修复前后水树附近电场分布来分析和验证水树的修复机理。实验结果证明,修复液可以充分与电缆水树中的水发生反应生成胶状聚合物填充水树通道;修复后电缆介质损耗因数、绝缘电阻和击穿电压恢复到新电缆水平;改善了绝缘层电场分布;有效地抑制了水树生长。实验表明,该修复液可有效修复电缆中的水树缺陷,提高电缆绝缘水平。     

In-service methods for distinguishing the dc component due to water treeing from noise currents in xlpe cable

This paper describes the water tree diagnoses of 6.6-kV class XLPE cables by the dc component method. The dc current component is measured by energizing the cable with ac high voltage, therefore, it would be suitable for on-line diagnoses. The dc component is considered to be caused by the rectifying effect of water trees inside the insulation. In laboratory tests, the dc component showed a good correlation with the degradation. However, almost no correlation was seen in the on-site measurement. The authors found that the cause of this bad correlation is the galvanic effect inside the jacket. This generates the noise current through the grounding circuit when the jacket resistivity is low. Based on this finding, the equivalent circuit of on-site measurement was proposed. Considering the equivalent circuit, this paper proposes nine methods for discriminating the dc component due to water tree from noise current. Also described are the analytical results of each method. Furthermore, the on-site or laboratory tests show that some of them are effective in separating the dc component due to water tree from noise current.     

Growth properties of sulfide trees in cables under dc stress

Investigations on the growth properties of sulfide tree in cable insulation, subjected to dc electric fields, are described in this paper. Measurements of electric strength and conductivity are correlated to tree growth, observed by optical and electron microscopy, during accelerated aging tests performed in sea water with hydrogen sulfide. It is shown that both electric strength and dc conductivity are very sensitive to the length and concentration of sulfide trees, and that the magnitude of the electric field affects tree shape and growth rate significantly     

Understanding Electrical Performance and Microstructure of Water Tree Aged Cables after Silicone Injection during Electrical-Thermal Accelerated Aging

To further understand the long-term effect of rejuvenation fluid on water tree aged cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables after silicone injection, electrical performance and microstructure of water tree aged cables were investigated during an electrical-thermal accelerated aging experiment. Two groups of treated and untreated water tree aged cable samples were subjected to electrical-thermal aging for 2 weeks. The results of the dielectric loss factor showed that the electrical performance of the treated samples was significantly better than that of untreated samples after electrical-thermal aging. Microobservation results showed that the overall water tree sizes of the treated samples were much smaller than those of the untreated samples after electrical-thermal aging. Furthermore, there was a second growth of water trees in the original water tree region during electrical-thermal aging in both groups of samples. Using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), rejuvenation fillers were observed tightly embedded in water tree voids after electrical-thermal aging. The infrared (IR) spectroscopy analysis results showed that the concentration of rejuvenation fluid increased from the outer layer to the inner layer of insulation. Based on the results, due to the improvement of the electric field at the water tree tip and the diffusion of silicone fluid in the insulation layer, both the second growth in the original water tree region and continuing growth at the water tree tip can be effectively inhibited.     

Correlation between space charge distribution and water-treelocation in aged XLPE cable

The correlation between charge distribution in an aged crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) cable and the location of water trees has been studied. The space charge radial distributions at different angle in the insulating wall of a service-aged XLPE coaxial cable, induced by application of a DC stress, were measured using the pulsed electroacoustic method. Furthermore, a cross section of sliced insulating wall was observed with an optical microscope to compare with the radial space charge distribution. The cable under investigation was electrically aged in service at 6.6 kV AC for 25 years in wet conditions. Water trees were found at the position in which space charge was observed. On the other hand, no water tree was found at the position in which the space charge was not observed. Judging from these results, the space charge measurement seems to be useful for the diagnosis of water trees in aged cables     

Observation of water tree growth in polyethylene in real time

The growth of water trees that lead to breakdown in polyethylene insulation of underground power cables is studied in real time, using a special observation cell for polyethylene that can be placed on the stage of a conventional microscope. The growth of the water tree was followed by time-lapse photography. Sample results are given. The water tree is shown to grow from a single streamer to a bushlike structure. This structure acts as an electrode, and the cycle repeats, with another streamer being sent out     

在线注入有机硅修复液对交联聚乙烯电缆中水树生长的影响

提出了水树老化电缆的在线修复方法,讨论了在交变电场下修复液对水树的抑制作用及其绝缘修复机理。采用高频高压水针电极法对新样本、预修复样本和在线修复样本进行加速水树老化。老化一个月后,使用显微镜观察样本中水树形态并测量其水树长度。通过差示扫描量热法分析样本绝缘层的劣化程度,同时利用扫描电镜和能谱分析仪对比水树区域的微观形貌及化学结构变化。研究表明,在线注入有机硅修复液能有效地抑制水树的生长。在电场的作用下,修复液分子和水分子同时向强电场区域(如微孔、水树区域等)进行扩散并发生反应,消耗水分并且生成凝胶颗粒填充微孔,一定程度上缓解了绝缘的劣化。