Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal.

Cognitive appraisal theories of stress and emotion propose that cognitive appraisals precede physiological responses, whereas peripheralist theories propose that physiological arousal precedes cognitive processes. Three studies examined this issue regarding threat and challenge responses to potential stress. Study 1 supported cognitive appraisal theory by demonstrating that threat and challenge cognitive appraisals and physiological responses could be elicited experimentally by manipulating instructional set. Studies 2 and 3, in contrast, found that manipulations of physiological response patterns consistent with challenge and threat did not result in corresponding changes in cognitive appraisal. Appraisals in Study 3, however, were related to subjective pain independent of the physiological manipulation. These studies suggest a central role for cognitive appraisal processes in elicitation of threat and challenge responses to potentially stressful situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Beyond attribution theory: Cognitive processes in performance appraisal.

Construes performance appraisal as the outcome of a dual-process system of evaluation and decision making whereby attention, categorization, recall, and information integration are carried out through either an automatic or a controlled process. In the automatic process, an employee's behavior is categorized without conscious monitoring unless the decisions involved are problematic; a consciously monitored categorization process would then occur. Subsequent recall of the employee is viewed to be biased by the attributes of prototypes (abstract images) representing categories to which the employee has been assigned. Dispositional and contextual factors influence the availability of categories during both assignment and recall. Although automatic and controlled processes can create accurate employee evaluations, categorization interacting with task type tends to affect subsequent employee information with halo, lenient/stringent, racial, sexual, ethnic, and personality biases. Behavior taxonomies, individual differences in cognitive structure, validation of behavior-sampling techniques, and laboratory studies of appraisal processes are presented as potential topics for research. (93 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive and empathic factors in role-taking by schizophrenic and brain damaged patients.

A comparison of schizophrenics and organics on their capacity for role-playing indicated that although both groups fared worse than normals, the incapacity to role-play for each pathological group could be accounted for differentially. Cognitive deficits seemed to inhibit the organics; schizophrenics seemed to lack empathy (seen in a capacity to predict the performance of another person). 32 refs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Procedural justice, stress appraisal, and athletes' attitudes.

In this study the authors examined a model in which procedural justice may serve as an external-situational resource that improves athletes' appraisals of stress and enhances their attitudes toward their team. Eighty-one Israeli male athletes were questioned on the degree of procedural justice employed on their team, how they appraised stress, and their attitudes toward their team. Results showed that higher procedural justice was associated with more positive appraisals of stress as a challenge and greater team loyalty and commitment and that the relationship of procedural justice to team commitment and loyalty was mediated by how stress is appraised. Findings integrate the cognitive-phenomenological model of stress/coping with the relational factors of the procedural justice approach and extend their validity to the field of sport. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive response to stress and experimental demand.

Replicated and extended a previous study by M. Horowitz (see pa, vol. 43:15779) which found that more intrusive thinking, stress film recollections, and visual images occurred after viewing a stressful film as cognitive responses to stress. 30 female undergraduates saw a stress and nonstress film and had significantly more intrusive thoughts and film recollections after the stress film. These variables were not significantly affected by 2 contrasting experimental demands. The frequency of visual images did not change after the stress film but was slightly affected by demand set. After the stress film, negative affect and intrusive thinking were positively correlated. Results indicate that intrusive thinking and stimulus repetitions are important cognitive responses to stress and can be reliably measured in experimental research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive variables associated with personal problem-solving appraisal: Implications for counseling.

Examined differences between self-perceived effective and ineffective problem solvers on cognitive content variables (e.g., self-concept, irrational beliefs, and dysfunctional thoughts) as well as cognitive process variables (e.g., need for cognition, and coping processes). 500 college students were given the Problem Solving Inventory during a mass testing program at the beginning of the semester. Subsequently, 52 Ss were selected for additional participation, and each completed 5 instruments: Irrational Beliefs Test, Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, Need for Cognition Scale, Thought Stopping Survey Schedule, and Ways of Coping Scale. Results indicate statistically significant main effects by problem-solving appraisal for all of the dependent variables. Ss who perceived themselves as effective problem solvers had more of a tendency to enjoy cognitive activities, higher self-concepts and lower self-criticism scores, lower frequencies of dysfunctional thoughts, fewer irrational beliefs, and coping styles that were less blameful and more problem focus than those Ss who perceived themselves as ineffective problem solvers. Results are related to W. Mischel's (1981) self-regulatory and encoding schema, cognitive-behavioral research, distinctions among cognitive processes, problem-solving training, counseling, and problem-solving models. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dynamics of a stressful encounter: Cognitive appraisal, coping, and encounter outcomes.

Investigated the functional relations among cognitive appraisal and coping processes and their short-term outcomes within stressful encounters. The authors used an intraindividual analysis of the interrelations among primary appraisal (what was at stake in the encounter), secondary appraisal (coping options), 8 forms of problem- and emotion-focused coping, and encounter outcomes in a sample of 85 married couples (females aged 35–45 yrs and males aged 26–54 yrs). Findings show that coping was strongly related to cognitive appraisal; the forms of coping that were used varied depending on what was at stake and the options for coping. Coping was also differentially related to satisfactory and unsatisfactory encounter outcomes. Findings clarify the functional relations among appraisal and coping variables and the outcomes of stressful encounters. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive appraisals and problem-directed coping: A prospective study of stress.

Information-seeking and problem-directed coping behaviors following a stressful event were observed as a function of cognitive appraisals of the coping resources of 138 undergraduates. Subjectively defined failure on a college exam served as an example of a mild stressor. Prior to the 1st midterm exam, Ss generated alternative strategies that could be used in the event of dissatisfaction with performance and rated the feasibility of using these strategies. Academic coping behaviors were measured by self-report and direct observation during the 3 wks prior to the next exam. Results show that coping cognitions predicted academic behaviors but not exam scores. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive complexity and appraisal effectiveness: Back to the drawing board?

Tested C. E. Schneier's (see record 1978-11450-001) cognitive compatibility theory. In Exps I and II, 100 undergraduates rated college instructors and professor vignettes, respectively. Results show that rater cognitive complexity was unrelated to rating accuracy, halo error, acceptability of rating format, or confidence in ratings. In Exp III, 31 police sergeants rated patrol officers, and the results show that halo error and acceptability of formats were unrelated to cognitive complexity. In Exp IV, 95 undergraduates' ratings of managerial performance and instructor effectiveness showed no support for the cognitive compatibility theory. However, the data showed that raters' ability to generate dimensions was significantly related to halo error in instructors' ratings. Implications for cognitive compatibility theory and future research with the method of generating performance dimensions are discussed. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive impairment in schizophrenic patients on event-related potentials component P300

There have been many reports on the Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) abnormalities, especially P300 amplitudes reduction, in schizophrenic patients. However the relationships between P300 abnormalities and schizophrenic subtypes have not been clarified. This study aims to investigate the relationships in a relatively large number of drug free schizophrenics. Seventy three unmedicated schizophrenic patients (45 males, 28 females) who met the DSM-III-R criteria for schizophrenia were tested. Twenty seven of the schizophrenics were paranoid type according to the DSM-III-R, 23 were undifferentiated, 19 were disorganized, 2 catatonic and 2 residual. Seventy three healthy controls were age and gender matched to the patient group. All the ERPs were recorded during auditory odd ball task. Stimuli consists of 2 kHz and 1 kHz tone bursts, and the respective probabilities of the rare and frequent stimuli were 0.2 and 0.8. They were presented random order. The duration of each stimulus was 90 msec with rise and fall times of 10 msec, and the intensity was approximately 70 dB SPL for all the stimuli. The inter-stimulus intervals were 1.7 +/- 0.1 seconds. The subjects were instructed to count the numbers of rare tones. The scalp EEGs were recorded from Ag-AgCl electrodes at 16 sites that referred to linked earlobes. P300 amplitudes reduction [F (1,144) = 39.33, p < 0.001] and P300 latencies prolongation [F (1,144) = 12.41, p < 0.001] were found in schizophrenic group as a whole. Lower amplitude of P300 was observed at both right and left temporal sites in the subjects with undifferentiated type and disorganized type. Although in the subjects with paranoid type, the reduction was recognized at left temporal region, reduced amplitude was not seen at right temporal site. While no relationships between P300 amplitudes, the score of BPRS and SAPS were detected, in the patient with paranoid type, significant negative correlation between P300 amplitudes and SANS total scores was observed (r = -0.425, p = 0.03) at Pz site. These results were discussed with respect to cognitive impairment of schizophrenia.     

Torque and schizophrenic vulnerability.

Counterclockwise spiraling, or left-turning, in structure and behavior is more frequently found in living organisms than is dextro- or right-turning. Children achieving well socially and academically during the developmental years draw circles in a counterclockwise direction with either hand. Left-handed children and children having social and academic difficulties more frequently show mixed left-circling and right-circling behavior. The tendency to circle in a clockwise direction has been called torque. A hypothesis is developed suggesting that children who demonstrate torque during the developmental years are exhibiting an external manifestation of a neural integrative defect in the corpus callosum. The resulting confusion of mixed cerebral dominance interferes with the child's acquiring important cognitive, language, and social skills. It is proposed that children who show torque are more vulnerable to the development of schizophrenia at maturity. At an average age of just under 10 yrs (115.5 mo), 54 children who demonstrated no torque and 52 children who showed torque were evaluated for emotional adjustment a decade later. Based on reports of parents and guardians, with Ss at an average age of 21 yrs, results show that 11 of the Ss who had exhibited torque had in the interim been diagnosed as schizophrenic. One of the no-torque group had received this diagnosis. Limitations of the study and possibilities for furture research are discussed. (71 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive responses to stress: Effects of changes in demand and sex.

Replicated a previous study with female Ss by M. J. Horowitz and S. Becker (see record 1972-02452-001) testing the theory that increased intrusive and repetitive thought after exposure to stressful events is a cognitive response tendency occurring in general population groups. Reports by 1 female and 27 male students of mental contents before and after neutral and stress films were analyzed. Data contrasted for male and female Ss and for different instructional demands show that the stress film exerted a significant influence on increase in intrusive and stimulus-repetitive thought; male-female differences and demand effects were nonsignificant. Results support the hypotheses that intrusive and repetitive thinking are general cognitive responses to stress and that such changes in conscious experience can be quantified in the laboratory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive processing therapy for veterans with military-related posttraumatic stress disorder.

Sixty veterans (54 men, 6 women) with chronic military-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) participated in a wait-list controlled trial of cognitive processing therapy (CPT). The overall dropout rate was 16.6% (20% from CPT, 13% from waiting list). Random regression analyses of the intention-to-treat sample revealed significant improvements in PTSD and comorbid symptoms in the CPT condition compared with the wait-list condition. Forty percent of the intention-to-treat sample receiving CPT did not meet criteria for a PTSD diagnosis, and 50% had a reliable change in their PTSD symptoms at posttreatment assessment. There was no relationship between PTSD disability status and outcomes. This trial provides some of the most encouraging results of PTSD treatment for veterans with chronic PTSD and supports increased use of cognitive- behavioral treatments in this population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contextual constraint and schizophrenic language.

Compared 16 hospitalized schizophrenic patients and 16 nonpsychiatric patients for the degree of facilitation of contextual constraint in memory. Ss were matched for intelligence, age, education, duration of illness, and socioeconomic level. All Ss listened to 4 taped word passages of different linguistic structure: normal and anomalous sentences, and semantically related and random word-strings. Ss differed in recall on all conditions, with the greatest difference between S groups occurring on normal sentences. Both S groups showed greater recall on passages emphasizing semantic components than on those with syntactic. Results suggest that the schizophrenic difficulty in communication may be influenced by lack of memory facilitation due to contextual constraints. (24 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive appraisals and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in informal caregivers of stroke survivors.

Objective: To examine associations between cognitive appraisals (i.e., negative appraisals about the self, negative appraisals about the world, and self-blame) and the severity of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in informal caregivers (i.e., family relatives or close associates) of stroke survivors. Method: A cross-sectional study was conducted in which informal caregivers (N = 51) of recent stroke survivors completed the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale and the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory. Results: PTSD symptom severity correlated significantly with the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory Self, World, and Self-Blame subscales and with time since stroke and age (negative relationship). Cognitive appraisals explained 58% of the variance in PTSD symptom severity. Conclusion: The associations found between negative cognitive appraisals and the severity of PTSD symptoms are consistent with current cognitive models of PTSD and the recommended use of trauma-related cognitive–behavioral therapy for individuals with PTSD. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive preparation and coping self-talk: Anxiety management during the stress of flying.

Investigated the effectiveness of 2 cognitive coping strategies, singly and in combination, in 56 undergraduate females with a reported fear of flying. Ss were assigned to 4 groups: preparatory information training, self-statement training, combined training, and pseudotreatment control and were flown aboard an 11-passenger aircraft for 2 flights. Half of the Ss flew with the door to the cockpit open, and the other half flew with the door closed. Each flight encountered a planned unexpected missed landing. Self-reports of anxiety were obtained before takeoff, during the flight, and after landing. Even though the cognitive-coping strategies were not differentially effective in reducing anxiety during the ongoing stress of flying, under serious threat (unexpected event), with the cockpit door open, self-talk and combined Ss coped better than information and control Ss. With the door closed, all groups increased in anxiety. At the final landing, with the door closed, self-statement-trained Ss increased in their self-reported anxiety. Results of a 4.5-mo follow-up on flight apprehension are discussed in terms of the effects of the treatment manipulations. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Morality of schizophrenic adolescents.

Investigated morality in 40 schizophrenic and normal males (aged 14–26 yrs; IQ 80–200) from low socioeconomic status families by exploring cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects of conscience. Schizophrenics scored lower than normals on all measures (e.g., Kohlberg Moral Judgment Interview), although the differences were significant only on the cognitive and teacher-report measures. Data suggest that the morality of schizophrenic adolescents differs both qualitatively and quantitatively from that of normal adolescents. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping strategies and collective efficacy as mediators between stress appraisal and quality of life among rescue workers.

Fire-fighters, paramedics, and emergency medical technicians routinely confront potentially traumatic events in the course of their jobs. The mediation role of coping strategies and collective efficacy in the relationship between stress appraisal and quality of life was examined (compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue, and burnout) in a correlational study. Participants were 463 Italian rescue workers (fire fighters and different categories of emergency health care professionals). Participants filled out measures of stress appraisal, collective efficacy, coping strategies, and quality of life. The results showed that emotion and support coping, self-blame coping, and self-distraction mediated the relationship between stress appraisal and compassion fatigue. Moreover, collective efficacy, self-blame coping, and religious coping mediated the relationship between stress appraisal and burnout. Finally, collective efficacy, self-blame coping, and problem-focused coping mediated the relationship between stress appraisal and compassion satisfaction. Cognitive restructuring and denial did not mediate the relation between stress appraisal and any of the quality of life dimensions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)