Does virtual trauma cause posttraumatic stress disorder?

Comments on an article by Marshall et al. (see record 2007-07130-003). Marshall et al. (2007) believe that widespread media-induced PTSD calls for a new paradigm for understanding traumatic stress. But do the post-9/11 studies really document a nationwide epidemic of what Young (in press) wryly calls "PTSD of the virtual kind"? For several reasons, we are skeptical. We question the need for a new paradigm to explain "virtual PTSD" because we question the evidence supporting its existence. Although at least some people directly exposed to danger surely developed PTSD in response to the terrorist attacks, there are good reasons to doubt whether an epidemic swept the nation in the wake of 9/11. Contrary to Marshall's (2006) view, our skepticism is neither ethically problematic nor indicative of "denial of human suffering" (p. 627). Instead, our skepticism is driven by the absence of convincing evidence that such an epidemic occurred. The more plausible interpretation of the data is that the responses of community residents reflect normal, temporary distress responses to a shocking event, not medical symptoms indicative of psychiatric illness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Despotism, democracy, and the evolutionary dynamics of leadership and followership.

Responds to comments made by George B. Graen (see record 2008-19206-015) and Stephen J. Guastello (see record 2008-19206-016) on the current author's article Leadership, followership, and evolution: Some lessons from the past by Van Vugt, Hogan, and Kaiser (see record 2008-03389-004). In the original article my co-authors and I proposed a new way of thinking about leadership, informed by evolutionary (neo-Darwinian) theory. In the first commentary, Graen (see record 2008-19206-015) noted that we ignored a number of recently developed psychological theories of leadership that take into account the leader-follower relationship, most notably LMX theory. LMX theory asserts that leadership effectiveness and team performance are affected by the quality of working relationships between superior and subordinates. Because the original article primarily dealt with questions about the origins of leadership--the phylogenetic and evolutionary causes--we had to be concise in our review of proximate psychological theories of leadership. In the second commentary, Guastello (see record 2008-19206-016) concurred with the importance of an evolutionary game analysis for studying leadership but disagreed with certain details of our analysis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rejoinder: The what, when, and how of immediacy.

In this rejoinder, I respond to Muran and Samstag's (2008; see record 2008-13167-003) and Anchin's (2008; see record 2008-13167-004) reactions to the investigation of immediacy in two case studies (Hill et al., 2008; see record 2008-13167-001; Kasper, Hill, & Kivlighan, 2008; see record 2008-13167-002). In particular, I focus on theoretical and methodological issues. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal victimization patterns and psychopathology among Latino women: Results from the SALAS study.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 3(1) of Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy (see record 2010-26899-001). There were citation errors in the last sentence of the first column of text on page 9, and a reference was omitted from the reference list. The sentence should have read: “This result is consistent with other work that has found support for the anxious and dissociative reaction associated with trauma among Latinos and how it may relate to “ataque de nervios” (Hinton, Chong, Pollack, Barlow, & McNally, 2008; Lewis-Fernandez et al., 2002; Schechter et al., 2000; Tolin, Robinson, Gaztambide, Horowitz, & Blank, 2007).] [Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in of Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy (see record 2010-26899-001). In the original article there were citation errors in the last sentence of the first column of text on page 9, and a reference was omitted from the reference list. The sentence should have read: “This result is consistent with other work that has found support for the anxious and dissociative reaction associated with trauma among Latinos and how it may relate to “ataque de nervios” (Hinton, Chong, Pollack, Barlow, & McNally, 2008; Lewis-Fernandez et al., 2002; Schechter et al., 2000; Tolin, Robinson, Gaztambide, Horowitz, & Blank, 2007).] Research on the victimization of Latino women and the subsequent psychological impact has been limited by focusing on individual forms of victimization, primarily partner violence or sexual assault. Another deficiency includes mainly using convenience and/or geographically restricted samples, which impacts the generalizability of the results. To overcome these research limitations, the Sexual Assault Among Latinas (SALAS) study aimed to evaluate the broader scope of victimization among Latino women. The study surveyed a national sample of 2,000 Latino women using random digit dial methodology. Women were asked about various forms of victimization in childhood and adulthood including physical assaults, sexual assaults, stalking, threats, and witnessed violence, as well as psychological symptomatology including depression, anxiety, anger, and dissociation. This analysis found that victimized women were more likely to experience some form of polyvictimization and/or revictimization throughout their lives, with only 36% of victimized women experiencing one form of victimization in childhood or adulthood alone. Furthermore, multiple victimization experiences significantly increased the proportion of women who experienced psychological distress symptoms in the clinical range. For almost all evaluated symptoms, the multiple forms of victimization or varying victimization patterns significantly predicted clinical levels of psychological distress over any specific form or single incident of victimization. The results suggest that victimized Latino women experience multiple forms of victimization and that the evaluation of a broader spectrum of victimization better accounts for pathological symptomatology. Clinical implications for Latino women and future research directions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pathological science and the myth of recovered memories: Reply to McNally.

Responds to McNally's comments (see record 2007-18727-004) on the current author's original article. Richard McNally's thoughtful commentary points to a noncontroversial source of the fixation with Freud's early theory of repression. At the same time, however, McNally's account does not directly address the critical issue at the heart of my original article, namely that Freud's later theory of repression is persistently misconceptualized and accompanied by a breakdown in critical inquiry. Although the account proposed by McNally does not necessarily contradict this proposal, other potential sources of bias should also be considered. In particular, the acrimony provoked by the recovered memory dispute and the prevalence of ad hominem attacks against Freud suggest that emotional factors may also be obscuring rigorous debate. Issues surrounding the scientific inquiry of Freud's theory of repression are further discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Focusing on weight is not the answer to America's obesity epidemic.

Current authors respond to two comments on their article Medicare's Search for Effective Obesity Treatments: Diets Are Not the Answer (see record 2007-04834-008). The two comments state opposing views of the validity and novelty of the articles conclusions. In his comment, Applebaum (see record 2008-03389-008) claimed that our conclusion is "provocative and unproven" (p. 200), whereas Herman, Van Strien, and Polivy (see record 2008-03389-009) generally agreed with our findings but stated that "this conclusion is hardly new" (p. 202). Research on obesity treatment often leads to polarizing views, and our aim was to present a dispassionate analysis of the methodological issues in the long-term studies of diets. We believe we accomplished this goal, and the conclusions we presented were based on this analysis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive processes, trauma, and dissociation—Misconceptions and misrepresentations: Reply to Bremner (2010).

In a recent review (see record 2008-11487-001), we critically evaluated the research literature on cognitive processes in dissociation. In a comment, Bremner (see record 2009-24669-001) has voiced reservations about our contention that evidence for the causal role of trauma in dissociation is limited. In this reply, we argue that Bremner’s arguments are unconvincing and that a closer examination of the dissociation literature only strengthens the basis for our conclusions. Specifically, we show that dissociation exhibits a robust association with fantasy proneness and that Bremner’s criticisms regarding our operationalization of dissociation are unfounded. Moreover, we demonstrate that heightened levels of fantasy proneness, suggestibility, and cognitive failures are related to the propensity to develop pseudomemories, which in turn may account for why dissociation is related to self-reported, but not objective, trauma. We conclude that there is little evidence for the gross cognitive deficits (e.g., interidentity amnesia, memory fragmentation) that many scholars have claimed accompany dissociative symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial microaggressions and the power to define reality.

Replies to comments by T. E. Schnacht (see record 2008-05553-009), K. R. Thomas (see record 2008-05553-010), R. S. Harris Jr. (see record 2008-05553-011), and R. Goodstein (see record 2008-05553-012), on the current authors' original article (see record 2007-07130-001) which discusses racial microaggressions. The reactions by three of the four respondents to our article on racial microaggressions illustrate nicely the invisible nature of aversive racism and how well-intentioned Whites often dismiss, negate, and minimize the experiential reality of People of Color (POC). For too long POC have not had the opportunity or power to express their points of view. For too long their worldviews have been diminished, negated, or considered invalid. For too long they have been told that their perceptions are incorrect, that there are other logical and rational reasons for the actions of others (especially on racial issues), and that their assertions have no empirical validity. These latter responses are clearly evident in the comments by Schacht (2008), Thomas (2008), and Harris (2008), who continue to question the racial realities of POC using a number of false analogies, surface arguments, and flawed reasoning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Methodological issues in meta-analyzing standard deviations: Comment on Bond and DePaulo (2008).

In this comment on C. F. Bond and B. M. DePaulo (see record 2008-08177-001), the authors raise methodological concerns about the approach used to analyze the data. The authors suggest further refinement of the procedures used, and they compare the approach taken by Bond and DePaulo with standard methods for meta-analysis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The ethics of asking about abuse and the harm of "don't ask, don't tell."

Replies to comments by J. Read (see record 2007-07130-012), D. Gleaves et al (see record 2007-07130-013), V. Edwards et al (see record 2007-07130-014), M. Black and R. Black (see record 2007-07130-015), and S. Ullman (see record 2007-07130-016), which raised important points about the authors' original article (see record 2006-03947-003). Those comments extend our thinking about how to ask participants about abuse in an ethical way. Together, the comments point to the importance of researchers examining our own reasons for asking--or not asking--about abuse and of paying attention to how we respond when we ask. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Posttraumatic stress disorder following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks: A review of the literature among highly exposed populations.

The September 11, 2001 (9/11), terrorist attacks were unprecedented in their magnitude and aftermath. In the wake of the attacks, researchers reported a wide range of mental and physical health outcomes, with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) the one most commonly studied. In this review, we aim to assess the evidence about PTSD among highly exposed populations in the first 10 years after the 9/11 attacks. We performed a systematic review. Eligible studies included original reports based on the full Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., rev.; American Psychiatric Association, 2000) criteria of PTSD among highly exposed populations such as those living or working within close proximity to the World Trade Center (WTC) and the Pentagon in New York City and Washington, DC, respectively, and first responders, including rescue, cleaning, and recovery workers. The large body of research conducted after the 9/11 attacks in the past decade suggests that the burden of PTSD among persons with high exposure to 9/11 was substantial. PTSD that was 9/11-related was associated with a wide range of correlates, including sociodemographic and background factors, event exposure characteristics, loss of life of significant others, and social support factors. Few studies used longitudinal study design or clinical assessments, and no studies reported findings beyond six years post-9/11, thus hindering documentation of the long-term course of confirmed PTSD. Future directions for research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Applying science to human behavior.

Responds to N. Abi-Hashem's (see record 2000-03002-010) comments on the Carstensen et al (see record 1999-10334-001) article arguing that time perception is integral to human motivation. The authors feel that the concerns raised by Abi-Hashem are concerns that could be voiced about any scientific attempt to study human behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On matters of knowledge and treatment acceptability: A reaction to Harrison and Soucar.

Addresses concerns raised by J. B. Harrison and E. Soucar's (see record 1990-32084-001) criticisms of L. Clark and S. N. Elliott's (see record 1989-24134-001) study testing the influence of treatment strength information on knowledgeable teachers' evaluations of 2 social skills training methods. Elliott reinforces cautionary notes about the sample, provides previously unpublished information about 2 instruments, and challenges concerns about the design of the study. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cellular learning theory: Theoretical comment on Cole and McNally (2007).

The idea that learning proceeds as a function of the discrepancy (or error) between expected and obtained outcomes is central to many theories of associative learning. However, remarkably little is known about the neurobiological mechanisms that underlie this learning of predictive errors in fear conditioning, a widely used preparation in studies of cellular and molecular mechanisms of memory. In this issue of Behavioral Neuroscience, S. Cole and G. P. McNally (see record 2007-13974-022) demonstrate an important dissociation between the establishment and regulation of predictive error at the cellular level. Their findings have added a level of complexity to currently established views of the function of NMDA and opioid receptors in learning and memory. This commentary discusses some of the implications of these findings for theoretical and neurobiological approaches to memory, as well as current thinking about the cellular circuitry involved in reward learning and drug abuse. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

More differences about gender differences in marriage: A reply to Beach, Davey, and Fincham (1999).

S. R. H. Beach, A. Davey, and F. D. Fincham (see record 1999-15264-018) suggest that my (L. A. Kurdek, 1998; see record 1998-11410-003) failure to replicate their finding that the prospective links between depressive symptoms and marital quality differ between husbands and wives was due, in part, to the selection of a time lag that was too long and a sample that was homogenous on risk factors. Accordingly, the author reexamined the prospective links between depressive symptoms and marital quality using only a 1-year time lag and an expanded sample (N?=?406) that included spouses in first marriages and remarriages with appreciable variability on depressive symptoms. There was still no evidence that husbands and wives differed in the pattern of these prospective links. The author also addresses concerns that the growth-curve analyses did not provide a good fit to the observed data, speculates about reasons for the differences in findings, and makes recommendations for future longitudinal work in this area. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

There are no "specific correct" usages of concepts, only correct usages: Linguistic rules and the bounds of sense.

In this article we respond to Justin Sytsma's (see record 2008-01492-007) critique of our 2005 article "Analogy and Metaphor Running Amok: An Examination of the Use of Explanatory Devices in Neuroscience" (see record 2006-12348-004). We address each of Sytsma's major criticisms in turn. We conclude that, not only does Sytsma fail to convincingly demonstrate how our argument fails, he falls headlong into the very conceptual confusions we examine in our original article. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rejoinder: The madness to our method: Some thoughts on divergent thinking.

Replies to comments by M. D. Mumford et al. (see record 2008-05954-002), J. Baer (see record 2008-05954-003), M. A. Runco (see record 2008-05954-004), K. H. Kim (see record 2008-05954-005), N. Kogan (see record 2008-05954-006), and S. Lee (see record 2008-05954-007) on the current authors' original article on divergent thinking (see record 2008-05954-001). In this reply, the authors examine the madness to their method in light of the comments. Overall, the authors agree broadly with the comments; many of the issues will be settled only by future research. The authors disagree, though, that past research has proven past scoring methods--including the Torrance methods--to be satisfactory or satisfying. The authors conclude by offering their own criticisms of their method, of divergent thinking, and of the concept of domain-general creative abilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Being creative with the predictors and criteria for success.

Sackett, Borneman, and Connelly (see record 2008-05553-001) argued that several common criticisms of cognitively laden tests are not well supported by the literature. The authors’ systematic exploration of research surrounding seven specific criticisms is laudable, and we do not find fault with their conclusions as presented. In evaluating the seven concerns, however, the authors largely neglected the criteria that such tests are intended to predict. As a result, readers may come away with the erroneous conclusion that all is well in the mass testing world of cognitive ability. We wish to expand on Sackett et al.’s review by raising concerns about traditional approaches to defining academic and organizational success. In doing so, we argue for the importance of creativity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality traits across cultures and research on obedience.

Comments on an article by Twenge (see record 2008-19206-004) on the issue of psychological traits that may differ with culture and ethnicity in discussing the partial replication of Milgram’s obedience research (Burger, January 2009) (see record 2008-19206-001). But since a major stimulus for Milgram’s research was the destruction of European Jewry (Benjamin & Simpson, January 2009 (see record 2008-19206-002); Blass, 2009 (see record 2008-19206-006)), what about the “elephant in the room” of differences in European national groups on obedience, aggression, locus of control, and related factors? The five-factor model as applied across cultures offers a way of looking at European national differences in personality (Allik & McCrae, 2004). The results can be used to explore the possibility that personality traits that may be related to obedience might differ partly along cultural lines, with the considerable caveats that such traits probably change over time and generations, are subject to situational and historical variables, and interact with individual differences. The emphasis on situational determinants in discussions of the Milgram paradigm and its partial replication by Burger (2009) should not obscure possible cultural factors. Cultural factors in obedience to authority are worthy of further exploration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)