Evaluation of core disking rock stress and tensile strength via the compact conical-ended borehole overcoring technique

To evaluate core disking rock stress and tensile strength via the compact conical-ended borehole overcoring (CCBO) technique, the mechanism of core disking by means of the CCBO technique is discussed. It is simulated that overcoring of the CCBO under three-dimensional initial stress state coincides with borehole axis and is one of principal directions. The characteristics of induced stress and initiated failure due to tensile stress on the borehole bottom surface during overcoring are discussed. They are based on the results calculated by a semi-analytical boundary element process for axisymmetric elasticity with arbitrary boundary element conditions. From the results, an initiation criterion of core disking is suggested. It is shown that the failure is initiated from outside surface of core and that the failure initiation criterion on the longitudinal tensile stress outside of core can define the criterion of core disking. Secondly, since tensile strength of rock is closely related to core disking, an estimation procedure of it is suggested using strains during compact overcoring. It is shown that representative rock volume for tensile strength estimated by the filed measurement data is smaller than that by Brazilian test, and that the fracture initiation criterion may estimate rock stress using tensile strength obtained by Brazilian test with small volume. Finally, an estimation procedure of rock stress is suggested by means of core disking phenomenon on the CCBO technique.     

Quality control of overcoring stress measurement data

The in situ state of stress is one of the key rock mechanics factors related to the safety and stability of underground excavations for civil and mining engineering purposes. However, measurement and interpretation of stress have their difficulties. In particular, practical and objective tools have not been developed to judge transient strain behaviour during overcoring. The work described in this paper was set up by the nuclear waste management companies Posiva Oy (Finland) and Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB (Sweden) to improve the quality of interpretation of overcoring stress measurement results. Thus, the primary product of the project is a quality control capability for overcoring stress measurement data. For this purpose, a computer program was developed which can simulate the transient strains and stresses during the overcoring process for any in situ stress and coring load conditions. The solution is based on superposition of elastic stresses and the basic idea can be applied for different overcoring probes with minor modifications and recalculation of stress tensors. The measured strains can be compared to the calculated ones to check whether the measured transient behaviour accords with the interpreted in situ state of stress. If not, the in situ state of stress can be calculated based on any transient or final strain values. The transient stresses can also be compared to a strength envelope of intact rock and thereby the core damage potential can be estimated.     

Influence of surrounding environments and strain rates on the strength of rocks subjected to uniaxial compression

Uniaxial compression tests were performed under various non-atmospheric environments and constant strain rates on Kumamoto andesite. The environments considered were water vapor, organic vapor such as methanol, ethanol and acetone, and inorganic gas such as argon, nitrogen and oxygen. The strength of rock increased in the order of water vapor, methanol, ethanol and acetone vapor, and the stress corrosion index changed with changing environment even for the same rock type. The stress corrosion index was evaluated to be 31 in consideration of the water vapor pressure and strain rate. The stress corrosion index in this research showed good agreement with other researchers’ results and it can be concluded that the stress corrosion index is one of the constants representing the mechanical properties of the rock. However, it is an environment-dependent factor and may vary owing to the difference of hydroxyl ion concentrations that may exist in the same rock. Finally, it was shown that the time to failure is delayed by decreasing water vapor pressure in the surrounding environment, and then the long-term strength of rock under water vapor pressure can be estimated, based on sub-critical crack growth due to stress corrosion.     

深部非均匀岩体卸载拉裂的时间效应和主要影响因素

 深部地下工程围岩的拉伸破坏是一个常见的但没有得到充分研究的科学现象。岩石内部包含的缺陷和缺陷处的应力集中被认为与岩石在压应力作用下的拉伸破坏密切相关。基于应力集中的非均匀岩石拉伸破坏模型的理论框架,系统的研究3个影响岩石拉伸破坏的主要因素：加卸载速率(偏应变率)、缺陷尺度和初始地应力,对岩石内部缺陷处拉应力的产生和发展过程的影响。研究表明：(1) 偏应变速率对缺陷处附加拉应力具有显著的影响,偏应变率越高,缺陷处的附加拉应力越大;(2) 不同层次的缺陷对应于不同大小的偏应变率,偏应变率越高,对应缺陷的尺寸就越小;(3) 缺陷处的附加拉应力与初始应力成正比,缺陷较大时,岩体是否发生卸载破坏由初始应力、应力集中系数和抗拉强度间的关系决定。引用模拟试验和现场观测的结果和现象对理论分析结果进行讨论,试验现象和现场观测数据均与理论分析基本吻合。     

Stress measurements from oriented core

A low-cost methodology that allows the estimation of in situ and induced stress using oriented rock core specimens has been investigated. The technique can be used to determine the stresses either during the early stages of a project, even in undeveloped areas of a mine, or to measure in situ and induced stress within active mine workings, such as stopes and pillars. The research aim was to compare the experimental results estimated by the Acoustic Emission and Deformation Rate Analysis methods with those estimated by conventional HI cell measurements. Data was collected from a number of sites with different geological environments and in most cases the core was obtained from the same hole in which a conventional stress measurement had been carried out. The studies have focused on the determination of the full stress tensor from a single oriented cored rock. In all cases, the rock core specimens recollected similar in situ stress values to those estimated using conventional overcoring methods.     

An analytical model for estimating rock strength parameters from small-scale drilling data

The small-scale drilling technique can be a fast and reliable method to estimate rock strength parameters. It needs to link the operational drilling parameters and strength properties of rock. The parameters such as bit geometry, bit movement, contact frictions and crushed zone affect the estimated parameters. An analytical model considering operational drilling data and effective parameters can be used for these purposes. In this research, an analytical model was developed based on limit equilibrium of forces in a T-shaped drag bit considering the effective parameters such as bit geometry, crushed zone and contact frictions in drilling process. Based on the model, a method was used to estimate rock strength parameters such as cohesion, internal friction angle and uniaxial compressive strength of different rock types from operational drilling data. Some drilling tests were conducted by a portable and powerful drilling machine which was developed for this work. The obtained results for strength properties of different rock types from the drilling experiments based on the proposed model are in good agreement with the results of standard tests. Experimental results show that the contact friction between the cutting face and rock is close to that between bit end wearing face and rock due to the same bit material. In this case, the strength parameters, especially internal friction angle and cohesion, are estimated only by using a blunt bit drilling data and the bit bluntness does not affect the estimated results.     

Estimation of cracking and damage mechanisms in rock under triaxial compression by moment tensor analysis of acoustic emission

In highly stressed conditions, the excavation damaged zone induced by stress redistribution and disturbance must be evaluated after tunnel excavation. Therefore, the deformation and fracture characteristics of rock must be investigated. In this study, the fracture and damage mechanisms of rock induced by the accumulation of microcracks were investigated by moment tensor analysis, as well as by the moving point regression technique, both of which were applied to acoustic emission (AE) and strain data obtained from triaxial compression tests. Damage thresholds before the peak strength of rock under triaxial compression were determined by the moving point regression technique using acoustic emission data. The results showed that damage thresholds, except the crack closure stress, increased linearly with confining pressure. The results of the moment tensor analysis showed that shear failure was a major microscopic failure mechanism of rock under triaxial compression. In addition, shear failure became more dominant as the confining pressure increased. In this analysis, the expression of the damage magnitudes in each AE source as relative crack volumes leads to accurate prediction of macroscopic failure mechanisms, as well as major failure planes in the rock. In addition, the orientation of the macroscopic failure plane could be estimated by the orientational distribution of microcracks.     

Influences of the valley morphology and rock mass strength on tunnel convergence: With a case study of Khimti 1 headrace tunnel in Nepal

Underground structures are constructed at the bottom of the valley sides for various purposes and for different reasons. Hydropower projects and transport tunnels are some of the examples of such structures. In this paper, literatures on topographical effects on the in situ stresses in valley and fjord sides are reviewed. An attempt is made to correlate stress anisotropy problems with the valley side topography by using Phase² numerical modelling. Based on an underground construction case study, fifteen in situ stress measurements and the Phase² analysis, stress induced problems have been found to be influenced by the valley morphology. This influence can be monitored by the convergence measurement and by the stress measurement. In addition to the overburden height, the total valley height and the slope need to be considered in the assessment of the stress induced problem. The second aspect dealt with is the influence of the rock strength on the tunnel convergence. In the Khimti 1 headrace tunnel and 66 cases from 15 countries, it has been observed that the tunnel convergence is larger in the weaker rocks than in the stronger rocks though they may have similar Q-values. Rock type such as gneiss or phyllite (corresponding to the rock mass strength) is not considered in the Q-system but it has influence on the convergence that takes place in underground works. Thus, it also needs to be considered in the assessment of potential convergence of an underground structure.     

Experimental relation between shear strength under low pressure and S-wave velocity of rock subjected to mechanical weathering

The reduction in the shear strength of rock exposed on slope surfaces due to mechanical weathering is a ubiquitous phenomenon in regions where extreme environmental conditions prevail, i.e., repeated changes in temperature and moisture. In dealing with the slope instability problems in such regions, the long-term effects of weathering on the strength, deformation and durability characteristics of exposed rock are envisaged in this study. Therefore, in addition to conducting multiple-cycle standard slake durability tests on rock samples taken from the lithologies of Pakistan and Japan, and on artificial soft rock, the decrease in strength and stiffness is also studied by reproducing mechanical weathering in the laboratory. The reproduced laboratory weathering (RLW) is conducted with a new device that enables vacuumed saturation, freezing, thawing, drying and cooling under a maintained level of confining pressure. The decrease in strength, stiffness and durability is elucidated from the test results, which indicate that rock having a very low level of reference strain (shear strength/modulus at small strain) is resistant to RLW and slaking. Intact rock exhibits very low reference strain and this reference strain increases with an increase in the degree of weathering, which is the case of weathered rock. The decrease in the strength of rock is an important property for judging the safety of rock slopes undergoing weathering. Thus, the relation between the strength and the S-wave velocity of rock undergoing weathering is established. The authors recommend the use of this relation for a quick assessment of the strength of rock by briefly measuring the S-wave velocity of the weathered surface layer. The relationship will assist practitioners in quickly screening potentially unstable slopes.     

New artificial neural networks for true triaxial stress state analysis and demonstration of intermediate principal stress effects on intact rock strength

Simulations are conducted using five new artificial neural networks developed herein to demonstrate and investigate the behavior of rock material under polyaxial loading. The effects of the intermediate principal stress on the intact rock strength are investigated and compared with laboratory results from the literature. To normalize differences in laboratory testing conditions, the stress state is used as the objective parameter in the artificial neural network model predictions. The variations of major principal stress of rock material with intermediate principal stress, minor principal stress and stress state are investigated. The artificial neural network simulations show that for the rock types examined, none were independent of intermediate principal stress effects. In addition, the results of the artificial neural network models, in general agreement with observations made by others, show （a） a general trend of strength increasing and reaching a peak at some intermediate stress state factor, followed by a decline in strength for most rock types; （b） a post-peak strength behavior dependent on the minor principal stress, with respect to rock type; （c） sensitivity to the stress state, and to the interaction between the stress state and uniaxial compressive strength of the test data by the artificial neural networks models （two-way analysis of variance; 95% confidence interval）. Artificial neural network modeling, a self-learning approach to polyaxial stress simulation, can thus complement the commonly observed difficult task of conducting true triaxial laboratory tests, and/or other methods that attempt to improve two-dimensional （2D） failure criteria by incorporating intermediate principal stress effects.     

In situ rock stress determinations in deep boreholes at the Underground Research Laboratory

Deep in situ rock stress determinations are typically conducted using hydraulic fracturing in an existing borehole or by applying specialized overcoring techniques that require the installation of a strain-monitoring instrument in a central pilot borehole that is subsequently overcored. The unusually high horizontal to vertical stress ratio at depth in Canada's Underground Research Laboratory (URL) results in problems in the application of either of these methods. At 420-m depth, the rock in the URL is massive granite with virtually no fractures. The maximum principal stress is approximately 60 MPa and is sub-horizontal. The minimum principal stress is only 11 MPa, resulting in a horizontal to vertical stress ratio of almost 6 to 1. In these conditions, hydraulic fracturing is unable to produce axial fractures in sub-vertical boreholes or is unable to fracture the rock at all. Overcoring methods requiring a pilot hole are not feasible because of persistent core discing. To resolve these problems, AECL has applied a remote data logger/signal conditioner to the design of a Deep Doorstopper Gauge System (DDGS) for use to 1000-m depth. The DDGS is much less susceptible to core discing than most other overcoring methods because it does not require a pilot hole. This paper describes the operating principle of the DDGS and the results of field testing at the URL, as well as issues related to its use and the interpretation of results.     

Back-analysis of rock mass strength parameters using AE monitoring data

Most back-analyses in geotechnical engineering are based on methods that utilize field displacement monitoring data. In the present study, a novel method is developed to back-calculate rock mass strength parameters from AE (acoustic emission) monitoring data in combination with FEM stress analysis. The method is based on the important concept of generalized AE initiation threshold of rock masses, established from comprehensive data analysis of laboratory test and underground monitoring programs using AE and microseismic (MS) techniques. An easy-to-use Wizard is developed in Microsoft Excel™ to assist site engineers to perform the back-analysis. The efficient solver in Excel is utilized to reach the optimization solution of an objective function with constraints. The Wizard allows the user to complete the analysis process in an interactive fashion. One example is given to demonstrate the back-analysis process using AE monitoring data recorded from a cavern site. The rock mass strength parameters identified from this approach compare well with field test data, suggesting that the tool can be used effectively to back-calculate rock mass strength parameters from AE monitoring data.     

Measurement of local stress and estimation of regional stress associated with stability assessment of an open-pit rock slope

This paper discusses the concept of a new methodology for rock slope stability assessment. Then, results on rock stress measurement using the compact conical-ended borehole overcoring (CCBO) technique at Torigata limestone mine in Japan are presented. A procedure for back analysis of the regional strain and stress field with the 3-D finite element method, using the measured local stress, is suggested and demonstrated successfully in relation to Torigata limestone mine. Finally, to estimate the state of stress at the mine excavation level, 3-D finite element analyses were performed using boundary conditions from the analyzed regional strain and stress field. It is shown that the horizontal stress at the present excavation level is not reduced, and that the horizontal stress component cannot be disregarded in estimating the stability of rock slopes at this location, even though the mine is located near the top of a mountain.     

Numerical simulations of rock mass damage induced by underground explosion

The damage prediction of rock mass under blast loads induced by accidental explosions, rock bursts or weapon attacks is crucial in rock engineering. In this paper, parametric studies are conducted to evaluate the effect of loading density, rock mass rating (RMR) and weight of charge on the rock mass damage induced by underground explosions. The numerical simulations are carried out based on the transient dynamic finite element program ANSYS-LSDYNA. The numerical model was calibrated against the data obtained from a field blast test. A fully coupled numerical analysis, incorporating the explosion process, has been performed, where the large deformation zone near the charge is solved by the Arbitrary Lagrange–Euler (ALE) method. The deformable modulus and compressive strength of rock mass of granite are estimated by the RMR system. The peak particle velocity (PPV) damage criterion and the plastic strain criterion were adopted to study the damage zone around the charge hole, and an empirical formula considering the effects of loading density, RMR and weight of charge was obtained to estimate the damage zone in granite based on the numerical results.     

Risk of shear failure and extensional failure around over-stressed excavations in brittle rock

The authors investigate the failure modes surrounding over-stressed tunnels in rock.Three lines of investigation are employed:failure in over-stressed three-dimensional(3D) models of tunnels bored under 3D stress,failure modes in two-dimensional(2D) numerical simulations of 1000 m and 2000 m deep tunnels using FRACOD,both in intact rock and in rock masses with one or two joint sets,and finally,observations in TBM(tunnel boring machine) tunnels in hard and medium hard massive rocks.The reason for 'stress-induced' failure to initiate,when the assumed maximum tangential stress is approximately(0.4-0.5)σ_c(UCS,uniaxial compressive strength) in massive rock,is now known to be due to exceedance of a critical extensional strain which is generated by a Poisson's ratio effect.However,because similar 'stress/strength' failure limits are found in mining,nuclear waste research excavations,and deep road tunnels in Norway,one is easily misled into thinking of compressive stress induced failure.Because of this,the empirical SRF(stress reduction factor in the Q-system) is set to accelerate as the estimated ratio σ_(θmax)/σ_c 0.4.In mining,similar 'stress/strength' ratios are used to suggest depth of break-out.The reality behind the fracture initiation stress/strength ratio of '0.4' is actually because of combinations of familiar tensile and compressive strength ratios(such as 10) with Poisson's ratio(say0.25).We exceed the extensional strain limits and start to see acoustic emission(AE) when tangential stress σθ≈ 0.4σc,due to simple arithmetic.The combination of 2D theoretical FRACOD models and actual tunnelling suggests frequent initiation of failure by 'stable' extensional strain fracturing,but propagation in 'unstable' and therefore dynamic shearing.In the case of very deep tunnels(and 3D physical simulations),compressive stresses may be too high for extensional strain fracturing,and shearing will dominate,both ahead of the face and following the face.When shallower,the concept of 'extensional strain initiation but propagation' in shear is suggested.The various failure modes are richly illustrated,and the inability of conventional continuum modelling is emphasized,unless cohesion weakening and friction mobilization at different strain levels are used to reach a pseudo state of yield,but still considering a continuum.     

Study of scale effect on intact rock strength using particle flow modeling

Based on the extensive review of the UCS versus specimen size test data and the various empirical relations between the UCS and the specimen size, a new expression is proposed to describe the dependence of the UCS on specimen volume. The proposed new relation can fit the UCS versus specimen size test data of different rocks very well. Then, a numerical study of the scale effect on UCS is conducted using a numerical model in which the intact rock is represented by particles bonded to each other at contact points, with the contact bonds having both normal and shear strength components. The bond can break if the normal or shear contact stress exceeds the corresponding bond strength. To simulate the initial micro-fractures (flaws or cracks) in the rock, the smooth-joint contact model is used. The fractures are considered to be randomly orientated and located disks. The size and number of fractures are described by an exponential expression derived using fractal theory. The numerical model is calibrated using the test stress–strain curves of 80 mm×40 mm×40 mm prism Yamaguchi marble samples. Then, the calibrated model is used to predict the UCS of Yamaguchi marble samples at different sizes. The predicted UCS values are in good agreement with the experimental values. The numerical simulations show that to capture the scale effect on UCS of intact rock, initial fractures with sizes increasing faster with the specimen size must be considered in the modeling.     

A field index to determine the strength characteristics of crushed aggregate

The suitability of a simple technique to determine the strength characteristics of aggregates is reviewed. The results indicate that the strength characteristics of aggregates – in terms of crushing, impact and abrasion values – can be estimated and predicted from simple and quick tests for rock strength such as the Schmidt hammer and point load. The rocks and aggregates used in this work were of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic origin and of different types, ages and degrees of weathering. More than 110 rocks and aggregate samples were tested according to British Standard and ASTM. The laboratory tests included the Schmidt hammer and point load for rock material while the crushing impact and Los Angeles abrasion test were undertaken on the aggregates. Regression analyses were performed and empirical relationships between the strength of rocks (in terms of their compressive strength and point load indices) and aggregates (in terms of their crushing, impact and abrasion values) were developed. Relatively strong relationships were obtained between the compressive strength of the rock and the crushing and impact value of the aggregate, while moderately strong relationships were obtained for the Los Angeles abrasion values. Electronic Publication     

基于弹性应变能D-P强度准则修正

针对D-P强度准则存在的拉剪区偏大及不具备应力角效应等不足之处,为使其更符合岩石的屈服(破坏)机制,从弹性应变能角度对D-P强度准则进行修正,开展如下工作:为便于研究将弹性应变能分为偏量弹性应变能与张量弹性应变能之和,并分析各能量对材料破坏影响;研究D-P强度准则的物理意义及其不足之处产生的内在原因,并基于此建立广义D-P强度准则,总体上可较好地反映岩石的破坏特性,并能较好地解决拉剪区偏大及应力角效应等问题。对4种不同岩石的破坏强度进行计算,结果表明:广义D-P强度准则计算结果较为精确,该准则突破材料破坏时泊松比恒为0.5传统假设,对于准确定量地描述岩石破坏特性具有重要意义。     

Rock mechanics for design of Brisbane tunnels and implications of recent thinking in relation to rock mass strength

This paper explores the potential implications of recent thinking in relation to rock mass strength for future tunnelling projects in Brisbane, Australia, particularly as they are constructed within deep horizons where the in situ stress magnitudes is larger. Rock mass failure mechanisms for the current tunnels in Brisbane are generally discontinuity controlled and the potential for stress-induced failure is relatively rare. For the road tunnels which have been constructed in Brisbane over the last 12 years, the strength of the more massive rock masses for continuum analysis has been estimated by the application of the Hoek-Brown (H-B) failure criterion using the geological strength index (GSI) to determine the H-B parameters m_b, s and a. Over the last few years, alternative approaches to estimating rock mass strength for ‘massive to moderately jointed hard rock masses’ have been proposed by others, which are built on the work completed by E. Hoek and E.T. Brown in this area over their joint careers. This paper explores one of these alternative approaches to estimating rock mass strength for one of the geological units (the Brisbane Tuff), which is often encountered in tunnelling projects in Brisbane. The potential implications of these strength forecasts for future tunnelling projects are discussed along with the additional work which will need to be undertaken to confirm the applicability of such alternative strength criteria for this rock mass.