Meat fat formulation

Edible usage of meat fats has somewhat declined over the past years. This can be attributed to several factors. First, the advancement of hydrogenation technology has led to the development of highly functional vegetable oil products. Second, there has been an increased emphasis on Kosher products. Third, various questions relating cholesterol to risks of heart disease have generated some marketing concerns over meat fat usage. Meat fats are still a factor in the edible oils market. U.S. consumption of meat fats in 1976 was 4.1 billion pounds, approximately one billion pounds for edible usage. Because of their trigly ceride profiles, they are excellent sources of highly functional products for bakery applications. They have tended to be the “Cadillac” around which hydrogenated vegetable oil products have been developed. In addition, the economics of these products have generated significant savings for end users. Flavor attributes of meat fats have, in other cases, been the reason for their sole usage in certain specific products. In shortening formulation, meat fats are merely one of many triglyceride sources. They can be blended with any vegetable oil source. They can be subjected to the same processing as other oils in order to modify physical chemical properties such as SFI, melting point, consistency and oxidative stability. This paper will discuss specific applications where lard and tallow contribute unique functionality. It will then discuss various modifications which can be employed to insure more consistent performance or to customize products to specific applications.     

Fate of dietary sterols in hydrogenated oils and fats

Samples of table margarines, so-called polyunsaturated table margarines, hydrogenated vegetable oils, and so-called polyunsaturated hydrogenated vegetable oils were shown by infrared spectroscopy to contain hydrogenated components. Examination of the sterols from these oils by argentation thin layer chromatography and gas liquid chromatography did not reveal campestanol, stigmastanol, or Δ²²-stigmastenol, the expected hydrogenation products of the natural sterols. The sterol compositions of the above samples, animal fats, and blends of hydrogenated vegetable oils and animal fats were determined. The compound 24-methyl cholest-7-en-3β-ol was identified tentatively in sunflower and safflower oils.     

Fat in today’s food supply—Level of use and sources

Nutrient fat—food fats and oils, as well as fat from meat, milk, and other fat containing foods—in the U.S. food supply has increased ca. one-fourth over the past 60 years or so on a per person/day basis. Ca. two-fifths of the fat currently comes from fats and oils, including butter; over a third comes from meat (including fat pork cuts), poultry, and fish; and ca. one-eight comes from dairy products. This large increase in nutrient fat is due mainly to the use of more vegetable fats—margarine, shortening, and salad and cooking oils. The per capita amount provided by animal fats actually has decreased, because the large decreases in consumption of butter and lard are only partly offset by increases in fat associated with greater consumption of meats. Despite the decrease in consumption of animal fats, they continue to provide ca. one-fourth of the total calories. Although the proportion of calories from vegetable fats has increased, animal products still account for the largest share of the calories provided by fat. Shifts in sources of fat and the increased amount of fat have changed the fatty acid content of the food supply. One of five papers presented at the symposium, “Status of Fat in Food and Nutrition,” AOCS Fall Meeting, Chicago, September 1973. ARS, USDA.     

Analysis of sterol content and composition in fats and oils by capillary-gas liquid chromatography using an internal standard. Comments on the German sterol method

The advantages and disadvantages of various approaches to the capillary-gas liquid chromatography (GLC) of sterols in fats and oils with internal standards are discussed. The German method F-III 1²(,3) for sterol analysis in fats and oils, which uses betulin as an internal standard, was reformulated and translated. A number of further improvements and alterations were also made, and the procedure used is described more precisely below in English in order to give detailed explanations, e.g. regarding the role of the aluminium oxide column and of the internal standard betulin. The method is applicable to a wide range of oils and fats, including mixtures of vegetable and animal fats, cereal lipids, and partially hydrogenated fats.     

Effect of ascorbyl palmitate on the quality of frying fats for deep frying operations

The addition of 0.02% ascorbyl palmitate (AP) reduced color development of frying fat (animal fat/vegetable oil [A-V] shortening) and vegetable oil (partially hydrogenated soybean [V-S] oil) in simulation studies. It also reduced peroxide values, development of conjugated diene hydroperoxides (CDHP) and their subsequent degradation to volatile compounds, such as decanal and 2,-4 decadienal, indicating that AP has the ability to inhibit thermal oxidation/degradation of frying fats and oils. A commercial french fry fat had lower CDHP values compared to A-V fat in simulated studies, and fried chicken oil had lower CDHP values than the V-S oil. Peanut oil had higher thermal stability than the other fats and oils.     

Wirtschaftliche Bedeutung der Schlachttierfette

Economic Significance of Meat Fats Problems related to the economic significance and utilization of meat fats are discussed with respect to the aspect of breeding and production as well as marketing and nutrition. The farming industry has made numerous efforts to limit the output of meat fats resulting from the increasing production of meat products. Since the meat fats are less desired for human consumption, their use in fields other than foods should be aimed at.     

Processing of Palm Kernel Oil

By the end of the century palm kernel (PK) oil is forecast to rank fifth in volume of world trade in oils, only slightly behind coconut oil. PK oil received by Malaysian refiners is of good quality, typically below 2% in free fatty acids, and is easily refined. PK oil is fractionated to give a higher melting fraction (stearin) and a lower melting fraction (olein). The various processes used are described. PK oil, olein or stearin are also hydrogenated to give a range of products ranging in melting point from about 24 to 44°C. PK oil and olein are interesterified alone or in blends with a non-lauric oil to give products with improved melting properties and utility. The utilisation of PK oil in the main application areas of confectionery fats, non-dairy/imitation dairy products, biscuit creams, industrial margarines, nut roasting and spray oils are discussed.     

Effects of selected chemical treatments on quality of fats used for deep frying

Maintaining quality of fats and oils used for deep frying is important in food preparation. In this study, commercially used shortenings were treated with various adsorbents and/or additives with a view to extending their useful life. Quality parameters monitored were increases in dielectric constant, free fatty acids, color (absorbance at 420 nm) and total polar materials. Bleaching clay, charcoal, magnesium oxide and Celite, and their mixtures, effectively reduced one or more of these parameters in used vegetable and animal-vegetable shortenings. However, when the treated fats were used to fry more french fried potatoes in the laboratory, they often deteriorated more rapidly than the untreated control fats. The daily addition of 200 ppm ascorbyl palmitate to fresh, partially hydrogenated soybean oil shortening used to fry french fries retarded free fatty acid development but increased color development and dielectric constant. Treatments employed to extend the useful life of frying fats improved quality parameters, but continued frying after treatment led to greater deterioration than occurred in the untreated control samples. Presented in part at the AOCS Annual Meeting in Philadelphia, PA in May, 1985.     

Atomic absorption spectroscopy

Atomic absorption spectrophotometry has been used for the rapid determination of various metallic and nonmetallic elements in crude and refined vegetable oils and in animal fats, many present in levels of parts per million. Various types of crude and refined vegetable oils were analyzed for Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, P and Zn. This method of analysis has proven to be less time consuming, as accurate and more convenient than other spectroscopic techniques for elemental analyses. Presented at the AOCS-AACC Joint Meeting, Washington, D.C., April, 1968. So. Utiliz. Res. Dev. Div., USDA, ARS.     

Production,health implications and applications of oleogels as fat replacer in food system: A review

Various food formulations widely utilized solid fats to provide specific textural properties and sensory attributes. Partially hydrogenated oil was commonly used as solid fat before being banned by FDA recently because of the existence of trans fats. Oleogels, semi-solid gel typically prepared from liquid vegetable oil and food-grade oleogelators, is developed as an alternative for solid fats that is free of trans fat and low in saturated fats. Oleogels are prepared via indirect or direct oleogelation technology by which the liquid oil is entrapped in a three-dimensional network with the aid of low molecular weight oleogelators (LMOGs) and high molecular weight oleogelators (HMOGs). Oleogels received tremendous attention from food scientists to be used in various food applications, particularly high-fat products such as comminuted meat, chocolates, ice cream, shortening and margarine and even as a deep-frying medium. They satisfy not only the current trends of consumers for healthy food products (free of trans fat and low in saturated fat) but also provide viscoelastic solid- and gel- like properties to structure high fat food products. More importantly, recent studies showed that oleogels tend to be metabolized differently from conventional fats and oils giving them an additional advantage in improving the nutritional value of high-fat foods. Therefore, this review aims to provide an overview that captures the latest studies on oleogels from their production via direct dispersion and indirect dispersion methods, processing conditions that influence the physical properties, metabolism and health attributes as well as recent application in food products.     

Vegetable oils: Effects of processing,storage and use on nutritional values

At the present time, vegetable oils are the source of most of the visible fat in the U.S. diet. They are used as salad and cooking oils, in salad dressing, margarine and shortening. Processing methods include extraction, refining, hydrogenation and interesterification. During storage and use, the products are exposed to oxygen and/or heat, particularly during frying. Processing, storage and use are related to changes in composition, nutritive value and physical characteristics of vegetable oils. Refining removes undesirable minor components present in crude oils. Refined polyunsaturated vegetable oils are the primary dietary source of tocopherols. Hydrogenation modifies physical characteristics and improves sensory and oxidative stability. This process converts some of the polyunsaturated fatty acids to new fatty acid isomers. Although the biochemical effects of these isomers are still being studied, long-term animal feeding trials and human experience have demonstrated that the partially hydrogenated oils in margarines and shortenings are wholesome foodstuffs. Abusive overheating of fat in air sharply decreases its palatability and nutritive value and may create minor amounts of carcinogenic materials. However, long-term animal feeding studies with properly used frying fats have revealed little, if any, effect on life span and incidence of pathological conditions.     

Sesame oil.I. Properties of a solvent-extracted sesame oil

Summary Data and information have been presented with respect to the extraction, processing characteristics, and the chemical and physical characteristics of oil obtained from white sesame seed. Extraction of sesame seed with hexane yielded a crude oil low in free fatty acids and in color. The oil was refined with caustic soda under a variety of conditions with low losses and bleached with comparatively small quantities of several bleaching earths each of which produced a light-colored oil. Data have been presented on progressive changes which occurred in the composition, stability, plasticity, and refractive index of the fat during selective hydrogenation of the refined and bleached oils. Sesame oil hydrogenated to shortening consistency exhibited extremely high stability when tested by the accelerated active oxygen method. This stability confirms previous suggestions that sesame oil contains one or more antioxidants of greater activity than those present in most of the other vegetable oils of commerce. Presented at the International Sesame Conference, Clemson Agricultural College, Clemson, South Carolina, August 15–16, 1949. Trainee at the Southern Regional Research Laboratory, August 26, 1947 to April 1, 1948. One of the laboratories of the Bureau of Agricultural and Industrial Chemistry, Agricultural Research Administration, U. S. Department of Agriculture.     

Gas chromatographic separation of the fatty acid methyl esters prepared from dairy products,partially hydrogenated oils,and refined vegetable oils applying a negative temperature gradient

To date no single gas chromatographic method can simultaneously measure all fatty acids (FA), including trans-FA (TFA), that are contained in dairy products, partially hydrogenated oils (PHO), and refined vegetable oils. Using 100% poly(biscyanopropyl siloxane) capillary columns, ruminant and dairy fats are preferentially analyzed by applying temperature programs that separate short chain FA, but not trans-18:3 from 20:1. Refined vegetable oils and PHO are preferentially analyzed by applying isothermal elutions that provide quantification of all 18 carbon TFA including trans-18:3 FA, but not of all short chain FA. In this short communication, we propose a temperature program method capable of simultaneously measuring short chain FA and all 18 carbon TFA including trans-18:3 by applying a negative temperature gradient after the elution of trans-18:1. A simplified version of the method is also described for equipment not able to perform negative temperature gradients.     

Farbe von Ölen

Colour of Oils For many products, particularly edible oils and fats, color is an essential indicator for quality. Today instruments are used to measure the color in oils, fats, fatty acids or other substances. The Tintometer is a subtractive colorimeter, which used red, blue and yellow glass standards. Almost everywhere in the world, the Lovibond color scale is nowadays considered as an accepted means of assigning precise color values to edible oils and fats. But there are also, of course, alternative ways and techniques of determining or measuring color. In recent years, the development of microprocessor-controlled colorimeters has made it possible to automatically measure and compare Lovibond color scale and correlating international standard values pursuant to the CIE System.     

Blending process optimization into special fat formulation by neural networks

Computer programs are used to manage, supervise, and operate production lines of oil, margarine, butter, and mayonnaise in the fats and oils industry. Automation allows for lower-cost and better-quality products. The present paper shows a multilayer perceptron-type, second-generation neural network that was built based on a desirable product solid profile and was designed to formulate fats from three ingredients (one refined oil and two hydrogenated soybean-based stocks). This network operates with three sequential decision levels, technical, availability and costs, to furnish up to nine possible formulations for the desired product. Upgrading verification was accomplished by soliciting to the formulation network all 63 products used in the upgrading (the answers were evaluated by a panel of experts and considered satisfactory) and 17 commercial products. It was possible to formulate more than 50% of the products in the network with only the three bases available. The results demonstrate the possibility of using neural networks as an alternative to the automation process for the special fats formulation process. Presented at 6th Latin American Congress and Exhibit on Fats and Oils Processing, September 25–28, 1995, Campinas, Brazil.     

Low linolenic soybeans and beyond

Low linolenic soybean oil is the first in a series of modified oilseed products to be introduced to meet food company and consumer needs. Consumer packaged goods and foodservice companies are currently using this oil to successfully replace partially hydrogenated soybean oil, resulting in the reduction of trans fatty acids from the food supply. In addition to meeting consumer demand for healthier foods, many food processors have chosen low linolenic soybean oil based on taste, performance and cost benefits. Seed companies continue to utilize traditional breeding, marker assisted breeding and biotechnology approaches to modify oilseeds that produce oils with health and nutrition benefits. Additional modified oilseeds are at various stages of development. Soybeans with increased levels of stearic acid are being developed as an alternative to partially hydrogenated fats and high saturate fats required to provide solids and structure to food. High stability fry oils with increased levels of oleic acid, reduced levels of linolenic acid as well as a version with lower saturated fat are being developed. Soybeans are also being modified to offer more sustainable sources of omega‐3s including stearidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid/docosahexaenoic acid which will result in more efficacious sources of omega‐3s compared to alpha‐linolenic acid‐containing vegetable oil and improved functionality/stability compared to fish and algal oils.     

Rice brain oil. I. Oil obtained by solvent extraction

1. Freshly milled rice bran has been extracted with commercial hexane and the recovered oil and extracted meal examined for their respective content of wax. The oils were refined and bleached by standards as well as several special methods. The crude, caustic soda refined, and several refined and bleached oils were examined spectrophotometrically.
2. When freshly milled rice bran of good quality is extracted with commercial hexane, an oil of relatively low free fatty acid content is obtained. This oil possesses good color and is as stable as other similar types of crude oils.
3. If the oils is extracted from the brain at a temperature below about 10°C. and the extraction is discontinued at the right time, the extracted oil represents 90–95% of the total lipids in the brain and contains very little wax. This wax, which is readily extracted with hot commercial hexane as well as other types of solvents, amounts to about 3–9% of the total extractable lipids.
4. When subjected to ordinary caustic soda refining methods, good rice brain oils behave much like cottonseed oils of comparable free fatty acid content. Both caustic soda refining in a hydrocarbon solvent and refining with sodium carbonate result in refining losses approximating the absolute or Wesson loss.
5. Some of the refined oils when bleached according to usual practice produce products acceptable for use in the edible trade. However, refined rice bran oil has a definitely greenish cast resulting from the presence of chlorophyll, but this color can be removed by bleaching with a small amount of activated acidic clay.

     

Analysis of traces of anionic detergents in oils and fats

A method to analyze oils and fats for anionic detergents, mainly sodium lauryl sulphate (NaLS), has been developed. After extracting the detergent from the oil, a chloroform-soluble complex with methylene blue is formed, and the concentration of this complex is determined spectrophotometrically. The method was found suitable for oils and fats containing 0.05 to 5.0 mg NaLS per kg. The analysis can only be used to assess fully refined oils and fats because partly refined and commercially available products may contain minor components and emulsifiers also solubilizing methylene blue into chloroform.     

Rice bran oil. V. The stability and processing characteristics of some rice bran oils

1. The extraction, processing, characteristics, and stability properties of nine batches of hexane-extracted rice bran oil were investigated. The oils were refined, bleached, and deodorized and their color and stability determined. Samples of the bleached oils were hydrogenated to approximately shortening consistency, deodorized, and the stability of the hydrogenated products determined.
2. Pilot plant extractions of five batches of rice bran yielded crude oils equivalent to 91% of the hexane-soluble portions of the bran.
3. The nine crude oils whose content of free fatty acids ranged from 2.0 to 6.3% were refined by the cup method with losses ranging from 12.0 to 23.5% although the neutral oil content of six crude rice bran oils ranged from 89.9 to 92.6%.
4. The Lovibond color of the nine refined oils ranged from 35 yellow and 4.5 red to 70 yellow and 9.5 red, and the color of the bleached oils ranged from 15 yellow and 1.5 red to 35 yellow and 3.2 red.
5. Steam-refining, employed in conjunction with alkali-refining, proved effective as a means of reducing the losses in refining rice bran oil.
6. The nine batches of refined, bleached, and deodorized rice bran oils had iodine values ranging from 101.3 to 105.7 and stabilities averaging 24 hours.
7. Nine bleached oils hydrogenated to approximate shortening consistency had iodine values averaging approximately 66 and stabilities averaging 370 hours.
8. Refined, bleached, and deodorized rice bran oil is bland but has some tendency toward flavor reversion.
9. The most outstanding characteristics of rice bran oil is its exceptional stability after hydrogenation.

     

Gewinnung der Rohfette von Schlachttieren und einige Hinweise auf deren technische Bedeutung bei der Fleischwarenherstellung

Production of Crude Fats from Slaughter Animals and Its Technical Significance in the Production of Meat Products. Crude fats from slaughter animals are characterized as crude fatty tissues, which are classified according to origin (swine and cattle) and quality. Production and treatment of these fats are governed by German meat inspection and investigation laws and hygienic regulations of the individual provinces. The author considers German meat inspection laws as very positive but not the regulations that prohibit refining of animal fats. Technology for the recovery of crude fat, hygienic measures to be adopted in this connection, and cold storage are dealt with individually. Special considerations that should be made if the crude fats are meant to be used in meat products are dealt with as well.