Interaction between silicon carbide and a nickel-based superalloy at elevated temperatures

A study has been made of the reaction of hot-pressed SiC and a nickel-based superalloy at temperatures between 700 and 1150° C. Under conditions of reduced oxygen pressure at the reaction interface, obtained by applying pressure to the couple, some degree of reaction was observed in both metal and ceramic at all temperatures studied. Preliminary studies utilizing the same techniques at 1000° C with a Si-SiC ceramic composite, Si₃N₄, MgO, Al₂O₃, and SiO₂ also indicated some degree of reaction in the metal for all ceramics examined.     

Fatigue variability of a single crystal superalloy at elevated temperature

In order to develop more accurate life prediction tools, an improved understanding of the variability within the fatigue behavior of a material is required. Recent work has shown multiple failure mechanisms that drive the variability in fatigue life of polycrystalline titanium and nickel materials. In addition, the bimodal behavior in the fatigue response is not readily apparent when only a very small number of specimens are tested at each loading condition, as is normal practice.The objective of this work was to investigate the fatigue variability of a single crystal nickel-base superalloy at elevated temperature. PWA1484, a second generation single crystal alloy developed for advanced turbine airfoil applications, was the material of choice for this investigation. A large number of fatigue tests were performed at one condition (stress level, stress ratio, frequency and temperature) to determine the variability and identify the sources of uncertainty in life. Scanning electron microscopy was used to investigate the relationship between failure mechanisms and variability. Crack growth analyses were used to predict lowest life estimates and were compared to experimental data. The results show large variability in fatigue life at fairly high stresses. Evaluation of the fracture surfaces indicated that microstructural features such as carbides and eutectics were responsible for the failures. In addition, the size of the feature responsible for fatigue failure could not be directly related to the fatigue life. The lowest expected life based on fatigue crack growth analyses did agree with the shortest life found experimentally. However, more testing and analysis is required.     

Crack growth in a new nickel-based superalloy at elevated temperature

Crack growth at elevated temperature has been examined in a new fine-grained nickel-based superalloy under triangular, fast-slow, slow-fast, dwell and sustained loading conditions at 650 and 725C. The effect of loading waveform seems to be minimal for base frequencies over 0.01 Hz with a mixture of time and cycle dependent crack growth observed for all but the fast-slow waveform, where the crack growth remained cycle-dependent and the crack growth rate mostly constant. For base frequencies less than 0.01 Hz, crack growth under dwell load clearly accelerated and the crack growth rates were comparable with those under sustained load. Creep contribution was found to be negligible while crack tip constraint may be relevant to the out-of-plane crack growth observed under predominantly sustained load conditions.     

Crack growth in a new nickel-based superalloy at elevated temperature

Crack growth at elevated temperature has been simulated using the finite element method for sustained and cyclic loading conditions, representative of time-dependent and time-independent crack growth. Elastic-creep (EC) and elastic-plastic-creep (EPC) models have been used to simulate the crack growth under sustained loads at 650 and 725C. Crack mouth opening displacements as well as the evolution of the inelastic zones due to creep and plasticity have been obtained. Elastic-plastic finite element analysis has been carried out to simulate the crack growth under cyclic load using a constitutive model. Fatigue crack growth was simulated for plane stress, plane strain and generalized plane strain loading conditions. The influence of plasticity on the effective crack driving force was also examined.Creep damage was found to be very limited at both temperatures for this alloy. Plasticity-induced crack closure was found to be absent in plane strain or generalized plane strain conditions, overestimated in plane stress loading conditions by the conventional compliance method.     

Fatigue crack growth measurement in a superalloy at elevated temperature

Crack growth experiments at elevated temperature were performed in a nickel-based powder metallurgy (PM) superalloy. The crack propagation procedure was monitored by travelling microscope, high temperature extensometer and beachmarking technique. The appropriate creep crack growth relating parameter for the present alloy was discussed. The crack growth behaviours in standard compact tension specimens and side-grooved compact tension specimens were compared. Several crack length measurement techniques including beachmarking, linear correction and compliance measurement were discussed and the results were compared.     

Friction and wear of single-crystal silicon at elevated temperatures

Single-crystal silicon wafers ((1 1 1) and (1 0 0)p-type) were abraded at room temperature 300 °C, and 600 °C by a polycrystalline partially stabilized zirconia ball in a ball-on reciprocating flat geometry. The sliding direction was 1 1 0. The friction coefficient was recorded as a function of reciprocating strokes and the deformation mode of the silicon. The friction coefficient at room temperature decreased with the number of strokes, and this variation was less affected by the number of strokes at the higher temperatures. The wear track width and depth were measured at the three temperatures. Wear increases as the temperature is raised to 300 and 600 °C. Optical and scanning electron microscopy of the subsurface damage reveals that cracks are generated at RT and 300 °C and dislocations are produced at 600 °C. The change in deformation mode with temperature from brittle fracture to plastic deformation accounts for the differences in wear.     

Investigation of impact toughness of a Ni-based superalloy at elevated temperature

The impact toughness of M951 alloy is investigated in temperature range between 20 °C and 800 °C. The results show that the impact toughness of samples impacted at 600 °C shows highest impact toughness value, the impact toughness value drops sharply when the samples impacted at 760 °C. In addition samples impacted at 800 °C show the higher impact toughness than that of samples impact at 760 °C. The scanning electron microscope observations show that cracks initiate at carbides particles due to high stress concentration, which leads to low impact toughness value at 20 °C. The dimples which can absorb more energy are formed during the impact at 600 °C. The samples impacted at 760 °C show lowest impact toughness. Additionally, the dimples nucleation, growth and coalescence are the major fracture mechanism at elevated temperature.     

The high temperature impact-sliding wear and oxidation resistance of several cobalt-based oxide- containing detonation gun coatings

The wear resistance of several detonation gun coatings under conditions of combined thermal shock and impact-sliding wear at elevated temperatures was evaluated. The conditions of testing were chosen to help rank materials for use in the turbine section of gas turbine engines, on high temperature steel mill equipment and in other severe industrial environments. The coatings studied had nominal compositions of (Co-25Cr-10Ta-7Al-0.5Y-2C)-10Al₂O₃ (LCO-17A), (Co-30Cr- 10Ta-0.5Y-2C)-10Al₂O₃ (LCO-19A) and (Co-28Cr-19W-5Ni-1V-0.85C)- 3Cr₂O₃ (L-103A). These were compared with Co-28Cr-19W-5Ni-1V-0.85C (CM 64) weld deposits.The tests comprised self-mating wear of the materials on a 6.35 mm pin with a coated end 12.7 mm in radius against a flat pad. In each mechanical cycle, the pin struck the pad, slid across it for a distance of 6.35 mm under a load of 5 kgf, reversed its sliding direction for the same distance and lifted off the pad; this occurred at a frequency of 530 cycles min^-1. The simultaneous thermal cycle consisted of heating for 50 s with a propane-H₂-O₂ throat-burning torch, followed by cooling with a forced air jet to near ambient temperature for 50 s. Maximum temperatures were 800, 900 or 1000°C. Each material was tested for about 300 thermal cycles.The results indicated that the coatings were superior to CM 64 at all three temperatures. On the basis of surface and metallographic observation of the scars, it appears that the formation of oxide scales had an important bearing on the wear rates. These results combined with oxidation and fretting wear test results suggest that LCO-17A is the material of choice at the higher temperatures but does not replenish its oxide film rapidly enough at low temperatures. L-103A is superior at the lower temperatures but has too high an oxidation rate above 900°C. LCO-19A is probably the best choice at intermediate temperatures.     

The effect of silicon content on long crack fatigue behaviour of aluminium–silicon piston alloys at elevated temperature

The microstructure of aluminium piston alloys comprises primary and eutectic silicon together with numerous intermetallics. Previous research has shown that primary silicon strongly influences both fatigue crack initiation and subsequent propagation behaviour, however, the detailed effects of varying silicon volume fraction and morphology have not been fully addressed. Therefore, the fatigue properties of a number of candidate piston alloys with varying volume fractions of silicon have been studied. Long crack fatigue tests have been performed at room and elevated temperature typical of the gudgeon pin boss (200 °C) using a test frequency of 15 Hz (a typical engine frequency at engine idle condition).Microstructural characterisation using image analysis approaches combined with optical profilometry has been used to assess the fracture surfaces of test samples. The role of primary Si in enhancing crack growth rates at high ΔK levels, whilst affording improvements in crack growth rates at lower ΔK levels due to local crack deflections and shielding, has been confirmed. In the absence of primary Si (lower Si content alloys) the low ΔK level crack growth behaviour is dominated by matrix properties (intra-dendritic crack growth pre-dominates) whilst the high ΔK level crack growth behaviour is inter-dendritic and occurs along the weak path of the eutectic Si and/or intermetallic network.     

Low-cycle-fatigue behaviour of superalloy blade materials at elevated temperature

Abstract

The low-cycle-fatigue (LCF) behaviour of superalloys has been examined with particular emphasis on their early stage strength changes and their response to complex cycling. Using steels and a titanium alloy as comparators, it has been possible to establish some general guidelines regarding their LCF performance. In the normal testing domain (700–1000°C) a high yield strain results in predominantly elastic conditions and cyclic stability. Under strain controlled dwell testing superalloys are fatigue dominated and generally more sensitive to compressive hold periods, whereas under stress control shortest lifetimes result from tensile dwells. Environmental influences are strong especially at temperatures where oxides remain brittle, but at high temperatures (>900°C) overaging effects may be beneficial. During thermal–mechanical cycling in-phase testing appears most deleterious.

MST/516     

High temperature wear testing of a Ni‐based superalloy pin on a cast iron disc

A pin‐on‐disc wear test rig is described, which allows to extract reproducible mechanical and microstructural wear data from very small sample volumes at temperatures up to 900°C. The friction and wear behavior of Alloy 80A against a cast iron is evaluated at temperatures from ambient to 800°C. The wear rate of Alloy 80A decreased with increasing temperature. This was attributed to the development of protective tribolayers, which prevented a direct contact between the two sliding partners. Energy Dispersive X‐Ray (EDX) mapping of surface wear products and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) results for the evolution of subsurface microstructures are exemplarily presented for wear experiments performed for 10 min at 300°C (frequency: 20 Hz, load: 20 N, stroke: 1 mm). EDX investigations provide a good insight into material transfers and oxide layer generations during sliding wear. TEM‐micrographs revealed cell structure formation and very small nanograins directly beneath the surface.     

The effect of silicon on the microstructure and segregation of directionally solidified IN738 superalloy

Th e effect of silicon on the microstructure and solidification segregation of directionally solidified IN738 nickel-based superalloy was studied. Directional solidification at various solidification rates and partial directional solidification plus rapid quenching were applied. Metallographican alysis and an electron microp robe were mainly used to observe and measure the micro structure and elemental segregation of the alloy, respectively. It was found that silicon affected the morphology of the liquid-solid interface of the alloy during solidification and gave the alloy a tendency to form well-developed dendrites. The addition of siliconen larged the solid us-liquidus temperature interval. and the solidification rate also greatly influenced the interval. The interval increased with increasing solidification rate. Silicon promoted the precipitation of the γ/γ' eutectic, and also affected its precipit ation temperature. Silicon segregated mainly in interd endritic regions, and promoted the segregation of other elements. All of the effects of silicon on the alloy related to the solidification rate.     

Fatigue crack growth of UDIMET 720 Li superalloy at elevated temperature

The fatigue crack growth rate and fracture behaviour of a nickel–base superalloy UDIMET 720 Li was investigated at 700°C in vacuum and air environments using corner crack specimens. The effects of load ratio at a frequency of 0.25 Hz were examined while the effects of loading frequency from 5 Hz to 0.008 Hz were also examined for a constant load ratio. The mode of fracture was intergranular at all load ratios at a frequency of 0.25 Hz in an air environment. Two-parameter models were proposed to describe separately the effects of load ratio and frequency. The model prediction was combined with data from vacuum tests to form a fracture mechanism map showing limited contribution of creep, while oxidation controls the fatigue crack growth rate as the frequency decreases.     

Influence of service-induced microstructural changes on the failure of a cobalt-based superalloy first stage nozzle

The present work was carried out to investigate the influence of serviced-induced microstructural changes on the failure of cobalt-base superalloy X-45 using in a first stage gas turbine nozzle. The obtained results show that the continuous film of carbides in the grain boundaries and the formation of needle like phases in the interior of grains are due to transformation of primary carbides M₆C type to secondary carbides M₂₃C₆ type as a result of high-temperature operations. This dense and continuous net of the carbides reduces ductility and toughness of the alloy in comparison with the initial values. Therefore, failure was facilitated by cyclic stresses during start-up/shutdown of gas turbine.     

Effects of boron addition on a melt-spun Ni-base superalloy

Melt spinning of a nickel-base superalloy containing various amounts of boron up to 3.0 wt% has been carried out to explore the potential of extended boride alloyability through rapid solidification. More specifically, the melt-spinning castability, ribbon-solidification microstructure and heat-treatment precipitation were studied as a function of boron concentration by using analytical electron microscopy and a number of other techniques. Special attention was given to the boride structure, chemistry and thermal stability. The microstructural observations were then correlated to the ribbon bend ductility tested in as-cast and annealed conditions. On the basis of the present results, future investigation of superalloys using the rapid solidification process and the boride alloying concept is discussed.     

The effect of tool flank wear on the temperature distribution of a machined workpiece

Abstract

Temperature distributions in the chip, workpiece and tool during orthogonal machining were calculated numerically by the finite element method. The solution of the problem takes into account the thermal properties of the machined workpiece and the tool materials, which are the function of temperature. The effects of different flank wear under different cutting speeds on the temperature distributions of the machined workpiece were analyzed. It also provided an assumption for measuring the frictional force and the normal force on the flank face. The assumption was verified by experimental data.     

The effect of high temperature exposure on dendritic segregation in a conventionally cast Ni based superalloy

Dendritic segregation in conventionally cast, commercially heat treated and exposed MarM002 turbine blades has been investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). During casting Cr, Co and W segregate to the dendrites and Hf, Ti and Ta segregate to the eutectics. As a result of the dissolution of precipitates in the dendrites and coarsening of precipitates in the eutectics this segregation aggravates during exposure at 1000°C. At this high exposure temperature homogenisation of dendritic segregation does not occur because it involves long diffusion distances and a low driving force compared with dissolution and coarsening of precipitates.     

The microstructure evolution and its effect on the mechanical properties of a hot-corrosion resistant Ni-based superalloy during long-term thermal exposure

The microstructure evolution and its influence on the mechanical properties are investigated in a hot-corrosion resistant Ni-based superalloy during long-term thermal exposure. It is found that the tertiary γ′ phase disappears and the secondary γ′ phase coarsens and coalesces gradually, which acts as the main reason for the decreasing of strength at both room temperature and 900 °C. During exposure, the grain boundary coarsens from discontinuous to half-continuous and finally to continuous structure. The optimum half-continuous grain boundary structure composed of discrete M₂₃C₆ and M₃B₂ wrapped by γ′ film leads to the elongation peak at room temperature in the thermally exposed specimens. At 900 °C, the increase in the elongation is attributed to the much softer matrix and the formation of microvoids. The behavior of primary MC decomposition is a diffusion-controlled process. During exposure, various derivative phases including M₂₃C₆, γ′, η, M₆C and σ sequentially form in the decomposed region. Primary MC decomposition and the precipitation of σ phase have little effect on the mechanical properties due to their low volume fractions.