Heat transfer characteristics of the latent heat thermal energy storage capsule

The characteristic variation of the rate of heat transfer to and from a latent heat thermal energy storage capsule was investigated analytically and experimentally. Basic experiments were carried out to simulate a solar energy storage capsule, using a horizontal cylindrical capsule (300 mm length, 40 mm o.d.) filled with naphthalene as the phase change material. The variation of heat flux during the processes of heat storage and removal was measured by a heat flow meter wrapped around the capsule, as the capsule was subjected to stepwise variations of the surface temperature. Finite difference calculations based on heat conduction were also carried out to compare with the experimental results. For the heat removal process, the experimental results and the calculated heat flux agreed well with each other. They showed different characteristic trends for the heat storage process, due to the effects of natural convection.     

Latent heat thermal energy storage using cylindrical capsule: Numerical and experimental investigations

This paper is aimed at analyzing the melting behavior of paraffin wax as a phase change material (PCM) encapsulated in a cylindrical capsule, used in a latent heat thermal energy storage system with a solar water heating collector. The heat for melting of PCM in the capsule is provided by hot water surrounding it. Since it is observed experimentally that the phase change occurs in a range of temperature, the present analysis considers this range instead of constant phase change temperature and the deviation between the results of these two is presented. The numerical analysis has been carried out by using enthalpy method and the results are verified with the experimental data. The experiments have been done by visualization technique without disturbing the actual process of melting. Three distinct stages of melting process have been identified as revealed by visualization studies. Results indicate that the melting process is chiefly governed by the magnitude of the Stefan number, Ste, phase change temperature range and the capsule radius. The analysis shows that the agreement between analytical and experimental results is significantly improved when the results are obtained considering phase change temperature range and the natural convection in the liquid phase instead of considering the process to be conduction dominated only.     

Numerical heat transfer analysis of encapsulated ice thermal energy storage system with variable heat transfer coefficient in downstream

During charging and discharging processes, the heat transfer behavior of the encapsulated ice thermal energy storage (TES) system changes during downstream case and this should be taken into account since the temperature of heat transfer fluid (HTF) and especially the heat transfer coefficient varies considerably around each capsule. This requires a careful study of the problem with variable heat transfer coefficient to contribute to the state-of-the-art. This has been the primary motivation behind the present study. Here, we first develop a new heat transfer coefficient correlation by simulating a series of 120 numerical experiments for different capsule diameters, mass flow rates and temperatures of HTF and second undertake a comprehensive numerical analysis using the temperature based fixed grid solution with control volume approach for studying the heat transfer behavior of an encapsulated ice TES system. Thirdly, we validate the present numerical model and the new correlation with some experimental data obtained from the literature, and hence a good agreement is obtained between the model results and experimental data. The results indicate that the heat transfer coefficient varies greatly during downstream and highly affects the heat transfer taking place during the process. So, the solutions with constant heat transfer coefficient appear to be unreliable for analysis and system optimization. The results also show that the solidification process is chiefly governed by the magnitude of Stefan number, capsule diameter and capsule row number.     

组合相变材料柱状储热单元的储热特性实验研究

主要研究由硬脂酸,切片石蜡和月桂酸三种相变材料组合的圆柱储热单元的储热特性,测试结果表明,与单一相变材料的储热单元相比,组合相变材料的付热单元的储热速率明显提高。     

Analysis of an encapsulated phase change material‐based energy storage system for high‐temperature applications

The capability of an encapsulated phase change material (EPCM)‐based thermal energy storage (TES) system to store a large fraction of latent energy at high temperatures was examined. A 3‐dimensional simulation of a prototype heat exchanger was conducted employing sodium nitrate as the phase change material (PCM). The k‐ω SST model was used to capture the turbulent flow of the HTF, while the melting front was tracked using the enthalpy‐porosity method. The results show that the use of metal deflectors yields a nearly constant heat transfer coefficient over the capsule's surface. Despite this, the presence of the void in the capsule and natural convection within the molten PCM influenced the storage characteristics of the system affecting the shape of the isotherms and melting front. Furthermore, the EPCM capsules consecutively undergo the same heat transfer starting from the capsule closest to the inlet. The EPCM capsules store 80% of the energy lost by the HTF. The 17.7 kg of sodium nitrate stores 14.5 MJ of energy where 20% of the energy stored is via latent heat. Of the energy released by the heat transfer fluid, 80% was absorbed by the EPCM capsules with the remaining energy going into the test section walls. A total of 14.5 MJ of energy was stored by the 17.7 kg of NaNO₃, of which 20% is attributed to the latent heat. The fraction of energy stored as latent heat would be larger if a smaller operating temperature range was used. Thus, an EPCM‐based latent heat TES system is capable of storing a large fraction of the supplied energy and presents efficient means of storing thermal energy for high‐temperature applications. Additionally, the strong agreement between the numerical and experimental works demonstrates that the numerical methods employed can predict the behavior of an EPCM capsule not only within a single capsule but on the system scale as well. Therefore, the applied numerical methods can be used for further design and optimization of EPCM‐based latent heat TES systems.     

Investigation on Phase Change Behavior of Paraffin Phase Change Material in a Spherical Capsule for Solar Thermal Storage Units

In this work, the melting and solidification behaviour of paraffin phase change material encapsulated in a stainless steel spherical container has been studied experimentally. A computational fluid dynamics analysis has also been performed for the encapsulated phase change material (PCM) during phase change process. In the melting process, the hot air, used as the heat transfer fluid enters the test section and flows over the spherical capsule resulting in the melting of phase change material. In the solidification process, the ambient air flows over the capsule and received heat from phase change material resulting in the solidification of phase change material. In the computational fluid dynamics, the constant wall boundary condition is employed for both melting (75°C) and solidification (36°C) processes since the internal conductive resistance offered by the PCM is much higher compared to the outer surface convective resistance. The time required for complete solidification and melting of the phase change material obtained from the computational fluid dynamics analysis are validated with the experimental results and a reasonable agreement is achieved. The reason for the deviation between the results are analyzed and reported.     

逆流形式下废液与空气热湿传递驱动力的解耦分析及实验验证

为了深入研究逆流形式下废液与非饱和空气热湿传递过程中传热驱动力与传质驱动力之间的关系,建立了逆流形式下废水和非饱和空气的热质交换耦合模型,利用数学方法对该模型的热湿传递驱动力进行解耦分析。将利用根据文献中逆流除湿/再生搭建的实验装置和本文搭建的废液再生实验装置得到的实验数据进行比较、验证。结果发现:相互耦合的温度差驱动力Δt和含湿量差驱动力Δω可以由相互独立的焓差驱动力Δh和相对湿度差驱动力Δφ表示,这两个相互独立的驱动力可以用来独立表征废液和非饱和空气的传热传质过程;相关文献中的和该装置中的实验结果与解耦分析的数值模拟结果一致:非饱和空气出口的所有参数在相互独立的驱动力所界定的范围内变化。     

Direct numerical simulation of a turbulent channel flow with a linear spanwise nonuniformity of time-mean temperature (Examination of the turbulence statistics)

Direct numerical simulation (DNS) was performed for a turbulent channel flow with the time-mean temperature linearly varying in the spanwise direction. Spanwise heat transfer in wall turbulence was explored in this simple case where the turbulent heat flux has only a spanwise component. The computed flow field was confirmed to be in good agreement with the DNS database constructed by Kasagi and colleagues (1992). The general trend of the presently calculated spanwise eddy diffusivity of heat is similar to the experimental data reported by Maekawa and colleagues (1991). However, there is a considerable discrepancy between their results in the vicinity of the wall. The numerical results demonstrate that the spanwise turbulent heat flux is nearly in local equilibrium over the whole channel width excluding the viscous sublayer. © 1999 Scripta Technica, Heat Trans Asian Res, 28(8): 675–686, 1999     

Visualization investigation of the flow and heat transfer in thermoacoustic engine driven by loudspeaker

Heat transfer process in thermoacoustic engine is affected by acoustic oscillation which makes it different from the heat transfer in steady flow. This study pays attention to the flow and heat transfer characteristics of thermoacoustic engine driven by loudspeaker. Thermal infrared imager and particle image velocimetry (PIV) were used to investigate the temperature and flow fields under two heat levels (150 °C and 200 °C). The radial and axial temperature distribution was analyzed through dimensionless temperature. To explore the appropriate working frequency, resonance characteristic was discussed. The experimental results illustrated that the first resonance frequency is the most effective driving frequency where thermoacoustic system shows the best performance. Heat transfer mode changed from natural convection to forced convection with the addition of acoustic oscillation. Original temperature field induced by heat convection was destroyed and temperature gradient redistributed as parabolic after sound addition.     

新型温控热管运行特性及启动过程实验研究

提出了一种新型分离式温控热管并进行了实验研究,该热管能够在保持传热温度变化很小的情况下自动改变传热功率来适应负荷变化的需要。实验结果表明,当温控热管传热功率增加200％时,热管工作温度变化小于5％,温控热管的启动过程较常规热管快;在实验范围内,不凝性气充气压力越高,启动过程越短。     

A combined experimental and computational study on the melting behavior of a medium temperature phase change storage material inside shell and tube heat exchanger

A combined experimental and numerical study is performed aiming to understand the role of buoyancy-driven convection during constrained melting of phase change materials (PCMs) inside a shell and tube heat exchanger. A series of experiments is conducted to investigate the effect of increasing the inlet temperature of the heat transfer fluid (HTF) on the charging process (melting) of the PCM. The computations are based on an iterative, finite-volume numerical procedure that incorporates a single-domain enthalpy formulation for simulation of the phase change phenomenon. It was observed from experimental results that the melting front appeared at different times at positions close to the HTF tube and progressing at different rates outwards towards the shell. The computational results show that by increasing the inlet water temperature to 80 °C, the total melting time is decreased to 37%.     

Melting of frozen, porous media contained in a horizontal or a vertical, cylindrical capsule

Melting of ice in porous media has been investigated experimentally and analytically for a horizontal and vertical cylindrical capsule. Quantitative results of the temperature distribution and solid-liquid interface motion and shape were obtained for inward melting with different size and types of spherical beads used as the porous media. Predictions from an analysis which considers conduction as the only mode of heat transfer in both the solid and liquid were compared to experimental data to show where natural convection becomes significant. It was found that the melting rate was augmented by natural convection in the liquid. For large differences in the thermal conductivity of the phase-change material and porous medium (e.g. water and aluminum), the effective thermal conductivity of the system was not predicted accurately by the model used, resulting in a further discrepancy between data and predictions. Moreover, the assumption of local temperature equilibrium between the void constituent and the porous medium becomes invalid for a water-aluminum bead system.     

Experimental and theoretical study of compositional inhomogeneities in LaNi5Dx owing to temperature gradients and pressure hysteresis,investigated using spatially resolved in-situ neutron diffraction

An in-situ neutron investigation of the spatial variation in hydride composition of LaNi₅ after a single absorption pressure step was performed. Compositional inhomogeneities are formed due to the strong temperature gradients created by the rapid absorption process coupled with the pressure and temperature hysteresis of the metal–hydrogen interaction. The hydride fraction of LaNi₅ in a cylindrical cell was mapped using the ENGIN-X stress/strain instrument and quantitative phase analysis performed using the Rietveld technique. The material was observed to preferentially absorb hydrogen close to the edges of the cell where heat transfer out of the material was more efficient. This spatial variation was maintained even after thermal equilibration. The experimental results are compared to predictions of a 3D multiphysics model solved by the software package COMSOL. The good agreement achieved demonstrates the suitability of this model for optimisation of metal hydride tank systems.     

Approximate Solution to the Spray Heat Transfer Problem at High Surface Temperatures and Liquid Mass Fluxes

ABSTRACT

A basic energy balance that includes phase change has been used to describe the boiling heat transfer process. By using the differential form of this energy balance, the relative change in the heat transfer coefficient can be determined when the surface and coolant temperature change. This represents a general solution to the boiling heat transfer problem under high flux conditions where fully mixed thermal boundary layer exists, although the solution procedure is approximate. The results agree quite well with experimental data. Further work remains to prescribe the heat transfer process near the critical heat flux and Leidenfrost point. This approach vastly reduces the empiricism and data required for boiling heat transfer processes, and also existing data can be used to generalize to a wide range of conditions.     

矩形腔内相变材料接触熔化的分析

对矩形腔内相变材料紧密接触熔化过程进行了理论分析。应用努谢尔特液体边界层理论，求得了便于工程计算用的接触熔化传热过程的理论解。分析结果与实验数据进行了比较，吻合程度良好。     

Effect of internal void placement on the heat transfer performance – Encapsulated phase change material for energy storage

The effect of an internal air void on the heat transfer phenomenon within encapsulated phase change material (EPCM) is examined. Heat transfer simulations are conducted on a two dimensional cylindrical capsule using sodium nitrate as the high temperature phase change material (PCM). The effects of thermal expansion of the PCM and the buoyancy driven convection within the fluid media are considered in the present thermal analysis. The melting time of three different initial locations of an internal 20% air void within the EPCM capsule are compared. Latent heat is stored within an EPCM capsule, in addition to sensible heat storage. In general, the solid/liquid interface propagates radially inward during the melting process. The shape of the solid liquid interface as well as the rate at which it moves is affected by the location of the internal air void. The case of an initial void located at the center of the EPCM capsule has the highest heat transfer rate and thus fastest melting time. An EPCM capsule with a void located at the top has the longest melting time. Since the inclusion of a void space is necessary to accommodate the thermal expansion of a PCM upon melting, understanding its effect on the heat transfer within an EPCM capsule is necessary.     

Convective heat transfer coefficients evaluation for a portable forced air tunnel

The objective of this work was the determination of the convective heat transfer coefficient in order to evaluate an experimental portable forced-air freezing tunnel and work on comparative studies with air exhausting and blowing. The heat transfer coefficients of the cooling air and the product were analyzed during freezing process. Convective coefficient results were higher for air exhaustion than air blowing in every part of the batch, except for the upper layer of products, where the cooling air of the chamber was directly in contact with the product. These results, with the temperature analysis obtained, indicated that the air circulation around the samples, as well as the heat transfer, improved with the use of the portable system, and had better results for the exhaustion compared to the blowing process.     

Temperature and pretreatment effects on the drying of Hass avocado seeds

The objective of the present experimental work was to determine the influence of five different drying air temperatures (313, 323, 333, 343, and 353 K) on the drying kinetics and the degree of moisture evaporation from Hass avocado seeds. The drying experiments of the non-pretreated and pretreated (sliced and crushed) Hass avocado seeds were performed in a heating furnace, where the pretreatment process was found to accelerate the drying process. The obtained results suggested that increase in the operating air temperature stimulated the rate of moisture evaporation, but resulted in the charring of the seed surface. The drying air temperature of 313 K was concluded to be suitable for the reasonable drying of Hass avocado seeds. The slicing pretreatment process was found to be better indicative of the total moisture amount present in Hass avocado seeds. The drying process removed a maximum of 58% of the initial water mass of Hass avocado seeds. An additional investigation was performed where the physical appearance of Hass avocado seeds immersed in water at different temperatures (303, 318, 325.5, 333, and 348 K) was examined. The observed study suggested that the surrounding temperature higher than 313 K could damage the physical appearance and reduce the quality of Hass avocado seeds.     

Transient temperature distributions in canned products during heat sterilization and cooling

This reseach was performed using experimental temperature data and a simple analytical model to estimate the temperature distributions at the centres of cylindrically canned products (diameter/thickness ratio = 4/1) during heat sterilization and cooling under continuous flow conditions for two retort temperatures (115 and 121°C). The recorded experimental temperature data for an individual can for two different retort temperatures were then used to construct the dimensionless experimental centre temperature curves. In order to predict dimensionless centre temperature profiles with a mathematical model, the convection boundary condition (i.e. 0·1 < Bi < 100) in transient heat transfer was considered. The predicted temperature profiles were compared with the experimental centre temperature measurements for two cases—heat sterilization and cooling. The experimental temperature values were in very good agreement with the theoretical predictions. The results of this study show that the present technique is a reasonable tool for estimating in a simple and accurate form the temperature distributions of a cylindrically canned product subject to both heat sterilization and cooling.     

Heat transfer of air-water dispersed flow in a vertical pipe

Heat transfer of air-water dispersed flow in a vertical heating pipe and its enhancement have been studied. The axial and circumferential wall temperature distributions were measured using various mist ratios and wall heat fluxes. The measured wall temperature increased sharply at a particular streamwise location, with a notable variation in the circumferential profile. This sharp increase was conceivably caused by a breakdown of the water film rather than by its dryout. A separate unheated experiment was carried out to estimate the droplet deposition velocity and the water-film flow rate. A numerical analysis, taking into account heat and mass transfer from the water film to the bulk flow, was performed in order to estimate the mean wall temperature. Good agreement was obtained with the experimental results in the area where the entire inner surface of the pipe was covered with the water film. In this area, the rate of heat transfer was approximately seven times larger than that for single phase air flow. This enhancement was shown to be due mainly to evaporation of the water film. The mechanism of heat transfer enhancement is discussed in detail using the numerical analysis results. © 1998 Scripta Technica, Heat Trans Jpn Res, 27(4): 255–270, 1998